Fascism is a form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism marked by forcible suppression of opposition, dictatorial power, and strong regimentation of society and economy. The movement came to prominence following the end of Wolrd War I in the early 20th century, where it first took root in Italy before spreading to other European nations
The details about Fascism gathered from this article will be useful in the world history segment of the UPSC Mains exam.
Definition of Fascism
The Italian term fascismo is derived from fascio meaning “a bundle of sticks”, ultimately from the Latin word fasces.
Political scientists and historians have debated for long about the exact nature of fascism, with each definition having unique elements and many other definitions being criticised for either being too broad or too narrow
According to many scholars, fascism and its adherents have always attacked communism, conservatism and liberalism, drawing support mainly from the far-right to be in power
The common definition of fascism is that of historian Stanley G Payne, which is widely accepted by contemporary scholars as reliable. His definition breaks down fascism in three concepts
One common definition of the term, frequently cited by reliable sources as a standard definition, is that of historian Stanley G. Payne. He focuses on three concepts:
- Fascism is anti-liberalism, anti-communism and anti-conservatism
- The goals of fascism are the creation of a nationalistic dictatorship that will regulate economy and structure social relations within a modern, self-determined culture to transform a nation into an empire
- Fascism gathers support through romantic symbolism, mass mobilization, a positive view of violence and promotion of authoritarian leadership.
Know the difference between communism, socialism and capitalism by visiting the linked article.
What are the tenets of Fascism?
The tenets of Fascism are as follows:
1. Nationalism (with or without expansionism): Nationalism is a key foundation of fascism. The fascist view of a nation is that of a single organic entity that binds people together by their ancestry and is a natural unifying force of people. The ideology seeks to resolve economic, social and political problems by achieving a millenarian national rebirth exalting the nation above all else and promoting traits of unity, strength and purity
2. Totalitarianism: Absolute control by the state is the hallmark of fascism. It opposes liberal democracy and rejects multi-party systems in favour of one-party systems that will, in its view, benefit the nation. In order achieve this a fascist state pursues policies of social indoctrination through propaganda in education and the media and regulation of the production of educational and media materials. Such steps are undertaken to purge ideas that are not in line with the views of the state
3. Economy: Fascism presented itself as an alternative to both socialism and free-market capitalism. Fascism advocated economic control with self-sufficiency as a major goal. It advocated a resolution of domestic class conflict within a nation to secure national solidarity
Fascist economics supported a state-controlled economy that accepted a mix of private and public ownership over the means of production. Economic planning was applied to both the public and private sector and the prosperity of private enterprise depended on its acceptance of synchronizing itself with the economic goals of the state. Fascist economic ideology supported the profit motive but emphasized that industries must uphold the national interest as superior to private profit.
4. Action: Fascism emphasizes direct action which supports political violence and believes in its legitimacy as a core part of its politics. The basis of fascisms support of violent action is connected towards social Darwinism, which believes that a perceived superior race has all the right to dominate races that are thought to be weaker.
The fundamental differences between dictatorship and democracy are given in the linked article
A brief history of Fascism
The period following World War I in 1919 was marked by weak governments and economic hardship. Events such as the Russian Revolution and the Great Depression had further made economic prosperity a distant dream in post-war Europe. This was more evident in Italy and Germany. The Weimar Republic of Germany had inherited a country reeling from defeat and the harsh sanctions imposed on it by the Versailles treaty. The economic hardship in 1929 further aggravated matters as inflation rendered the German currency virtually useless.
Fascism: UPSC Notes – Download PDF Here
This stopped the German government from paying war reparations under the Versailles treaty. France in a bid to force the Germans to repay the debt owed briefly occupied the Ruhr valley. Events such as these were fertile grounds for Hitler and his Nazi party (the German variant of Fascism) to offer an alternative. Hitler promised to do away with the ‘injustices of the Versailles treaty’ and usher in a new era of prosperity. Benito Mussolini of Italy also rose to power in similar conditions.
The difference between Nazis and Fascism are given in the linked article
The Fascist movements in both countries met their end after the defeat of Germany and Italy in 1945 during World War II. But the ideology was alive in Spain under General Franco and under General Pinochet of Chile who ruled the country until the 1970s.
Today fascism exists as fringe movements in contrast to its past mobilisations. Even though such movements have yet to make any mark in national elections, they are gaining momentum due to ongoing issues of war, immigration and other crises that have effected their nations as of late.
Fascism arose in Europe after World War I, when many people yearned for national unity and strong leadership. In Italy, Benito Mussolini used his charisma to establish a powerful fascist state. Benito Mussolini coined the term “fascism” in 1919 to describe his political movement.
At the end of World War II, the major European fascist parties were broken up, and in some countries (such as Italy and West Germany) they were officially banned.
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World at War
Learn how Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler rose to power and the lessons their political journeys hold for today.
Over the past few years, people have thrown around the word "fascism" to criticize any number of issues—stay-at-home orders during a global pandemic, proposed environmental regulations aimed at curbing greenhouse gas emissions, and even legislation limiting the size of soft drinks. But the word’s origins point to something far more serious than Big Gulps. Fascism is rooted in a history of highly divisive and destructive European movements that arose in the era between World Wars I and II. So what exactly does fascism mean, where does it come from, and to what extent do leaders today display fascist tendencies? This lesson explores those three questions by diving into the history of the world’s most notorious fascist leaders: Benito Mussolini of Italy and Adolf Hitler of Germany. Many experts agree that fascism is a mass political movement that emphasizes extreme nationalism, militarism, and the supremacy of both the nation and the single, powerful leader over the individual citizen. This model of government stands in contrast to liberal democracies, which support individual rights, competitive elections, and political dissent. In many ways, fascist regimes are revolutionary because they advocate the overthrow of existing systems of government and the persecution of political enemies. However, when it advances their interests, such regimes can also be highly conservative in their championing of traditional values related to the role of women, social hierarchy, and obedience to authority. And although fascist leaders typically claim to support the everyman, in reality their regimes often align with powerful business interests.What does fascism mean?
Let’s unpack a few of these hallmark characteristics of fascist leaders and their movements:
Extreme nationalism: Fascist leaders believe in the supremacy of certain groups of people based on characteristics such as race, religion, ethnicity, and nationality. Hitler and his Nazi Party, for instance, advanced the idea of Aryan (essentially white Germanic) racial superiority. The most extreme example of this ethnocentric nationalism was the Nazis' state-sponsored mass murder of six million Jews. The Holocaust, as it came to be known, involved eleven million murders total, including five million gay people, Roma people, people with disabilities, and others whom the Nazis deemed inferior. Cult of personality: Fascist regimes cultivate images of their leaders as great figures to be loved and admired, often through mass media and propaganda. In Italy, Mussolini’s photograph hung on the walls of classrooms while his political party encouraged all good citizens to purchase a Mussolini-themed calendar each year. Masculinity was central to this cult of personality. To maintain a powerful image, Mussolini prohibited journalists from reporting on his age or health issues and often took photographs posing with a lion or riding a horse. Mussolini, or Il Duce (“the leader”), took on a mythical status, and even the pope chalked up Il Duce’s survival of assassination attempts to divine intervention. Popular mobilization: Although both authoritarian and fascist governments are anti-democratic, leave little room for dissent, and strive to centralize power, the two types of regimes are not the same. Authoritarian governments want the population to remain passive and demobilized, whereas fascist regimes demand public participation in society through government-organized channels. Both Mussolini and Hitler, for instance, drew massive crowds in rallies intended to stir up enthusiasm for the country, the party, and the leader. Indeed, citizens could come under suspicion for refusing to take part in such activities. In this regard, fascist regimes often exhibit totalitarian tendencies by attempting to not just dominate politics but also control the hearts and minds of their citizenry. Mussolini and Hitler rose to power swiftly, but their countries’ transformations from constitutional governments to fascist regimes did not take place overnight. Rather, the two countries experienced a similar pattern of a fascist party gaining a foothold in government through initially democratic methods, consolidating power, and ultimately dismantling democratic institutions and securing a dictatorship for its leader. In this section, we’ll walk through the five stages of fascism—a framework coined by historian Robert Paxton to illustrate the similar steps through which individuals like Mussolini and Hitler came to power.How do fascists come to power?
Stage one: Emerging out of disillusionment Mussolini and Hitler rose to prominence in the aftermath of World War I, capitalizing on the political and economic fallout of the Great War and popular dissatisfaction with their countries’ leaders. Hitler pointed to the harsh and humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which forced Germany to accept blame for the conflict, give up its overseas colonies and 13 percent of its European territory, limit the size of its army and navy, and pay reparations (financial damages) to the war’s winners. He would gain followers by promising to tear up the Treaty of Versailles and restore the country’s honor. Meanwhile, the economic crisis that followed World War I further eroded public confidence in the existing political establishment. In the immediate aftermath of the war, Germany suffered hyperinflation—a situation in which prices skyrocketed so quickly that German currency lost much of its value—and Italy experienced a two-year period of mass strikes and factory occupations, with millions unemployed. Stage two: Establishing legitimacy as a political party Fascist leaders capitalized on popular disillusionment by creating their own political parties to challenge the ruling establishment through the ballot box and, often, violence in the streets.
In 1919, Mussolini created Italy’s Fascist Party, which unabashedly supported Italian nationalism and opposed socialism (even though it often incorporated socialist values and goals at first, such as creating better conditions for the lower class and putting people back to work). The group militarized politics by attracting fervent followers—including many returning World War I veterans—who organized armed militias known as the squadristi (or “Blackshirts,” per their uniforms) and skirmished with Italian socialists in the streets.
Germany’s Nazi Party (originally founded in 1920 as the National Socialist German Workers’ Party) also emerged in the aftermath of the war. With many Germans shocked by the country’s defeat in World War I, the Nazis pushed a narrative that argued Germany could have won the war if not for unrest at home. This myth falsely accused Jewish people and left-wing activists of stabbing the country’s war effort in the back and blamed Germany’s new democratic government for giving up on the conflict. Propelled by this vision, the Nazis went from winning 3 percent of the vote in the 1928 parliamentary elections to 44 percent in 1933. They also received support from their own paramilitary wing known as the Sturmabteilung (or “Brownshirts”) who—like the Italian Squadristi (or “Blackshirts”)—clashed with the party’s rivals.
Stage three: Gaining power via right-wing partnerships
During the interwar period, the economic collapse brought on by the Great Depression pushed many European centrists more to the political extremes of conservatism and socialism. A third option—fascism—would gain influence when its representatives partnered with conservatives, who advocated for traditional values, including nationalism and law and order. Conservatives recognized that Fascists wanted to overthrow the political establishment; however, the two groups found common cause over their shared hatred and fear of left-wing socialists.
In Italy, conservatives combined forces with Fascists to form a governing majority in parliament in 1921. Meanwhile, in Germany, the country’s conservative leaders allied with the Nazis, believing it would be a temporary compromise to prevent socialists from taking power. After the Nazis won the largest share of votes in 1932, the country’s president appointed Hitler chancellor of Germany. Even still, conservatives expected to control government affairs while taking advantage of Hitler’s charisma. That expectation, of course, would turn out to be a miscalculation.
Stage four: Using power to dominate institutions
Upon rising to power, Fascist parties attempted to consolidate political authority.
Mussolini’s Fascist Party won elections in 1921 as part of a coalition. The following year, the Italian king appointed Mussolini prime minister after a mass fascist demonstration known as the March on Rome, which provoked fears of civil war if Mussolini were denied power. The Fascists, however, did not seize absolute authority, as traditional institutions like the Catholic Church still retained a certain degree of independence.
The Nazis, on the other hand, took total control over government and society. Hitler removed all non-Nazis from government shortly after becoming chancellor in 1933. He would go on to pass laws stripping Jews of citizenship, expelling anti-Nazi professors from universities, banning rival political parties, and enabling him to rule by decree (meaning he could single-handedly—and without oversight—create future laws). Germany became a one-party country: the Nazis claimed to have won more than 90 percent of the vote in subsequent unfree and unfair elections, and after 1938, they ceased holding elections altogether.
Stage five: Implementing radical reforms
With near-total or absolute control over society, fascist leaders exercised their power in increasingly radical ways both at home and abroad.
Mussolini’s Italy carried out violent colonial campaigns across Africa. In Libya, colonial troops employed chemical weapons against local resistance movements and imprisoned their members in concentration camps. And in 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia (now Ethiopia), where virulent racism led to mass instances of rape and the indiscriminate killing of hundreds of thousands of people. Although Mussolini’s regime did not carry out the same scale of ethnic violence at home, his government proclaimed white, Christian Italians to be descendants of the Aryan race and banned Black and Jewish people from marrying them.
Hitler’s Nazi Germany remains the only example of full radicalization of a fascist movement. As Germany’s absolute ruler, or führer, Hitler destroyed all political opposition; invaded countries across Europe; launched World War II in partnership with Mussolini; and ordered the genocide of millions. Three-quarters of a century after Hitler’s death, his rise to power and Germany’s fall from democracy into fascism serve as frightening reminders of the dangers of racism and extremism in politics.
Does fascism exist today?
Most scholars understand fascism as a phenomenon that existed between World Wars I and II, with Mussolini and Hitler as its primary exponents. But that doesn’t mean that the characteristics of fascism can never reappear or that leaders and groups can’t replicate the fascist playbook to consolidate power.
Even if a group or movement does not progress through all five stages of fascism, it can still exhibit elements of fascism. This is evident in authoritarian countries like Russia and also increasingly apparent at a time of global democratic backsliding, in which democracies are under siege—not by foreign invaders but by domestic leaders who are using their countries’ own democratic institutions to subvert and destroy political freedoms, civil liberties, and democracy itself.
Although no full-fledged fascist movement has existed since World War II, it’s imperative to understand the stages of fascism in order to recognize when the conditions that once enabled the rise of such destructive regimes could be reappearing.