What is the ability of the muscle to resist force in a single contraction over a period time?

The health benefits and quality-of-life outcomes of a fit musculoskeletal system (musculoskeletal fitness) are reviewed in this article. The World Health Organization suggests health is a state of complete physical, mental or social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Physical health includes such characteristics as body size and shape, sensory acuity, susceptibility to disease and disorders, body functioning, recuperative ability and the ability to perform certain tasks. One aspect of physical health is the musculoskeletal system, which consists of 3 components; muscular strength, endurance and flexibility. Muscular strength (dynamic) is defined as the maximum force a muscle or muscle group can generate at a specific velocity. Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to perform repeated contractions against a load for an extended period of time. Flexibility has 2 components, dynamic or static, where dynamic flexibility is the opposition or resistance of a joint to motion, that is, the forces opposing movement rather than the range of movement itself. Static flexibility is the range of motion about ajoint, typically measured as the degree of arc at the end of joint movement. If strength, endurance and flexibility are not maintained, musculoskeletal fitness is then compromised which can significantly impact physical health and well-being. Many health benefits are associated with musculoskeletal fitness, such as reduced coronary risk factors, increased bone mineral density (reduced risk of osteoporosis), increased flexibility, improved glucose tolerance, and greater success in completion of activities of daily living (ADL). With aging, the performance of daily tasks can become a challenge. Additionally, falls, bone fractures and the need for institutional care indicate a musculoskeletal weakness as we age. The earlier in life an individual becomes physically active the greater the increase in positive health benefits; however, becoming physically active at any age will benefit overall health. Improved musculoskeletal fitness (for example, through resistance training combined with stretching) is associated with an enhanced health status. Thus, maintaining musculoskeletal fitness can increase overall quality of life.

The ability to resist external resistance with muscle contraction represents a basic principle of developing the complex of strength ability. Muscle contraction is conditioned by many factors (see chapter 10). If there is no visible movements of body segments during muscle contraction, this is referred to as static strength (e.g. holding tim in squat when thighs are held horizontally to the ground). On the other hand, if muscle contraction causes a visible movement of body segments by stretching (excentric muscle contraction) or by shortening the muscle (concentric muscle contraction), it is referred to as dynamic strength (e.g. mutual movement of forearm and upper arm during benchpress exercise). The dynamic strength can further be divided into partial manifestations of dynamic strength:

Maximal strength is manifested by overcoming high or even limit external resistance at a slow speed with a specific muscle group usually in one repetition (e.g. in benchpress).

Explosive strength is manifested by overcoming low external resistance or weight of own body with maximal acceleration in single (acyclic) movement of participating segments (e.g. in throws, or take-offs).

Reactive strength is an ability to carry out muscle performance in motor activities which use stretch shortening cycle (SSC) with duration up to 200ms from beginning.

Endurance strength is manifested by repeated overcoming relatively low resistance at slow speed and multiple cyclic movements (e.g. cross-country skiing, sculling etc.)

The above abilities are related to focus and effect of strength training. Among the most important effects of strength training, there are:

• Strength development
• Muscle hypertrophy development
• Net power output development at acyclic movement
• Net power output development at cyclic movement
• Muscle endurance development

Strength development is understood as an improvement in absolute or relative values of overcome external resitance at constant number of repetitions for specific muscle groups or exercises.

Muscle hypertorphy development represents increase in crosscut of active muscle fibre.

Net power output development at acyclic movement means improvement of optimum combination of speed of applied strength for dominant muscle groups in specific motor activities.

Net power output development at cyclic movement means improvement of optimum combination of speed of applied strength for dominant muscle groups in specific motor activities for a necessarilly long period.

Muscle endurance development represents improvement in strength manifestation of specific muscle groups in activities that last for a relatively long period without declining intensity.

Each manifestation of dynamic strength is different in its specific parameters. It is possible to differentiate among three essential specific parameters:

• Size of resistence
• Number of repetitions
• Velocity of movement

In any strength manifestation, one of the parameters is always dominant. The relationship among specific parameters with regard to the effects of strength training is presented in Figure 11.

Figure 11 Relationship among specific parameters with regard to the effects of strength training.

Development of strength and hypertrophy are close to maximal strength characteristics. Net power output development at acyclic movement is similar to explosive strength characteristics and net power output development at cyclic movement is close to fast strength. Muscle endurance development is similar to endurance strength characteristics.

Methods of strength development

Method of strength development arise from the above statements. There are many criteria for classifying individual methods of strength development. For the needs of this paper, we have chosen a classification which follows the criterion of the size of the resistance which is being overcome and velocity of the movement of specific muscle group which is being performed. Figure 12 presents an overview of the methods.

Figure 12 Overview of methods of strength development

Method of maximal effort is based on overcoming nearly limit resistance at slow speed in sets with small number of repetitions (usually 1-3x).

Method of breakes of movement is based on braking over-maximal resistance at a speed as low as possible in sets of one repetition.

Method of repeated effort is based on overcoming big but under-limit resistance at slow speed in sets with different numbers of repetitions (usually 8-12x). Very often, subsequent sets with either increasing or decreasing number of repetitions are used (so-called pyramids).

Intermediate method is based on combination of static and dynamic contraction. During the movement of a specific exercise (weight squat) the movement is stopped for several times (2-4x, static contraction).

Method of speed is based on overcoming low resistance at maximum speed possible in sets with different numbers of repetitions (usually 3-8).

Plyometric method is based on the principle of stretch shortening cycle in which accumulated elastic energy is used for subsequent excentric contraction. As a rule, the weight of own body is used in sets of 2-5 repetitions.

Method of strength endurance is based on overcoming low resistance at relatively slow speed with a big number of repetitions (usually < 15x). This method is often applied in the form of circular operation.

Creating a Training Program

Creating a program of strength training is a complex process which results from the following sequence of actions:

1. Needs analysis
2. Exercise selection
3. Training frequency
4. Exercise order
5. Training loads and repetitions
6. Volume
7. Rest periods

Step 1: Needs analysis

Evaluation of the Sports

The first task in a needs analysis is to determine the unique characteristic of the sport. This task includes consideration of the following attributes of the sport:

• Body and limb movement patterns and muscular involvement (movement analysis).
• Strength, power, hypertrophy, and muscular endurance priorities (physiological analysis).
• Common sites for joint and muscle injury and causative factors (injury analysis).

Training status of the Athlete

An athlete current condition or level of preparedness to begin a new or revised program (training status) is an important consideration when designing training programs. An assessment of the athlete’s training background should examine the:

• type of training program (sprint, plyometric, resistance, etc.)
• length of recent regular participation in previous training program(s)
• level of intensity involved in previous training program(s) and
• degree of exercise technique experience (i.e., the knowledge and skill to perform resistance training exercises properly)

Table 5 Example of Classifying Resistance Training Status

Primary Resistence Training Goal

The athlete’s test results, the movement and physiological analysis of the sport and the priorities of the athlete’s sport season determine the primary goal or outcome for resistance training program. An example of how the strength and conditioning professional may prioritize the resistance training emphases during the four main sport seasons is shown in table 6.

Table 6 Example of General Training Priorities by Sport Season

Step 2: Exercise Selection

Exercise selection involves choosing exercises for a resistance training program.

Exercise Type (Core and Assistance Exercises)

Exercise can be classified as either core or assistance based on the size of the muscle areas involved and their level of contribution to particular sport movement. Core exercises recruit one or more large muscle areas (i.e., chest, shoulder, back, hip, or thigh), involve two or more primary joints (multijoint exercises) for example power clean, and receive priority when one is selecting exercise because of their direct application to the sport. Assistance exercises usually recruit smaller muscle areas (i.e., upper arm, abdominals, calf, neck, forearm, lower back, or anterior lower leg), involve only one primary joint (single-joint exercise) for example bench press, and considered less important to improving sport performance.

Sport-Specific Exercises

The exercises selected for a resistance training program that focus on conditioning for a particular sport need be similar to the activities of that sport in their body and limb movement patterns, joint ranges of motion, and muscular involvement. Table 7 provides examples of resistance training exercises that relate in varying degrees to the movement patterns of various sports.

Table 7 Examples of Movement-Related Resistance Training Exercises

Muscle Balance

Exercises selected for specific needs of sports discipline should mainten balance of muscle strength between opposing muscle groups (e.g. biceps brachii a triceps brachii).  While building a strength program, it is necessary to do it with regard to balanced strength development. Unbalanced strength development may lead to muscle disbalance (e.g. as it happens with disbalance between quadriceps and hamstrings).

Step 3: Training Frequency

Training frequency refers to the number of training sessions completed in a given time period. For a resistance training program, a common time period is one week.

Training status

The athlete’s level of preparedness for training, which was determined during the step 1, is an influential factor in determining training frequency because it affects the number of rest days needed between training sessions. Traditionally, three workouts per week are recommended for many athletes, as the intervening days allow sufficient recovery between sessions. As an athlete adapts to training and becomes better conditioned, it is appropriate to consider increasing the number of training days (see table 8).

Table 8 Resistance Training Frequency Based on Training Status

More highly resistance-trained (intermediate or advanced) athletes can augment their training by using a split routine in which different muscle groups are trained on different days (see table 9).

Table 9 Examples of Common Split Routines

Sport Season

Another influence on resistance training frequency is the sport season. For example, the increased emphasis on practicing the sport skill during the in-season necessitates a decrease in the time spent in the weight room and, consequently, reduces the frequency of resistance training (see table 10).

Table 10 Resistance Training Frequency Based on the Sport Season

Step 4: Exercise order

Exercise order refers to a sequence of resistance exercises performed during one training session. Although there are many ways to arrange exercises, decision are invariably based on how one exercise affect the quality of effort or the technique of another exercise. Usually exercises are arranged so that an athlete’s maximal force capabilities are available to complete a set with proper exercise technique. Four most frequent approaches to exercise order in strenght training. 

Power, Other Core, Then Assistance Exercises

Exercises for developing net power output such as the snatch, hang clean, power clean, and push jerk should be employed first during training. Only then, should there come other core exercises followed by assistance exercises. Of all these, exercises for developing net power output require the highest level of skill and concentration and they tend to be most affected by fatique. Once athletes start to be tired, they are more likely to use wrong technique and they are therefore subject to a higher risk of injury.

Upper and Lower Body Exercises (Alternated)

One method of providing the opportunity for athletes to recover more fully between exercises is to alternate upper body exercises with lower body exercises. This arrangement is especially helpful for untrained individuals who find that completing several upper or lower body exercises in succession is too strenuous. Also, if training time is limited, this method of arranging exercises minimizes the rest periods required between exercises and maximized the rest between body areas. If the exercises are performed with minimal rest periods (20-30 seconds), this method is also referred to as circuit training.

"Push" and "Pull" Exercises (Alternated)

Another method of improving recovery and recruitment between exercises is to alternate pushing exercise (e.g., bench press, shoulder press, and triceps extension) with pulling exercises (e.g., lat pulldown, bent-over row, biceps curl). This push-pull arrangement ensures that the same muscle groups will not be used in two exercises (or sets, in some cases) in succession, thus reducing fatigue in the involved muscles. The alternation of push and pull is also used in circuit training programs and is an ideal arrangement for athletes beginning or returning to a resistance training program.

Supersets and Compound Sets

Other methods of arranging exercises involve having athlete perform one set of a pair of exercises with little to no rest between them. Two common examples are referred to as super sets and compound sets. A superset involves two sequentially performed exercises that stress two opposing muscles or muscles areas (i.e., agonist and its antagonist). For example, an athlete perform 10 repetitions of barbell biceps curl exercise, sets bar down, then goes over to the triceps pushdown station and performs 10 repetitions. A compound set involves sequentially performing two different exercises for the same muscle group.

Step 5: Training Load and Repetition

Load is most simply referred to as the amount of weight assigned to an exercise set and is often characterized as the most critical aspect of a resistance training program.

Relationship between Load and Repetitions

The number of times an exercise can be performed (repetitions) is inversely related to the load lifted; the heavier the load, the lower the number of repetitions that can be performed. Load is commonly describes as either a certain percentage of a 1-repetition maximum (1 RM) - the greatest amount of weight that can be lifted with proper technique for only one repetition-or the most weight lifted for a specified number of repetitions, a repetition maximum (RM). For instance, if an athlete can perform 10 repetitions with 60 kg in the back squat exercise, her 10RM is 60 kg. It is assumed that the athlete provided a maximal effort. Table 11 shows the relationship between a submaximal load calculated as a percentage of the 1RM-and the number of repetitions than can be performed at that load. By definition, 100% of the 1RM allows the athlete to perform one repetition.

Table 11Percent of the 1RM and Repetitions Allowed (%1RM-Repetition Relationship)

1RM and Multiple-RM Testing Option

To gather information needed to assign a training load, the strength and conditioning professional has the option of determining athlete’s:

• Actual 1RM (directly tested)
• Estimated 1RM from a multiple-RM test (e.g., a 10RM) , or
• Multiple RM based on the number of repetitions planned for that exercise (the "goal" repetitions; e.g., five repetitions per set)

Once the actual 1RM is measured or estimated, the athlete’s training load is calculated as a percentage of the 1RM. Alternatively, a multiple-RM test may be performed based on goal repetitions, thereby eliminating computations or estimations. In many cases, the strength and conditioning professional will use a variety of testing option depending on exercises selected and the athlete’s training background. A common strategy for testing sufficiently conditioned athletes is to conduct a 1RM test in several core exercises and use multiple-RM testing for assistance exercises.

Testing the 1RM

This method of assessment is typically reserved for resistance trained athletes who are classified as intermediate or advanced and have exercise technique experience in the exercises being tested. Individuals who are untrained, inexperienced, injured, or medically supervised may not be appropriate participants for 1RM testing.

1RM testing protocol

1. Instruct the athlete to warm up with a light resistance that easily allows 5 to 10 repetitions.
2. Provide a 1-minute rest period.
3. Estimate a warm-up load that will allow the athlete to complete three to five repetitions by adding:
• 4-9 kg or 5% to 10% for upper body exercise or,
• 14-18 kg or 10% to 20% for lower body exercise.

1. Provide a 2-minute rest period.
2. Estimate a conservative, near-maximal load that will allow the athlete to complete two to three repetitions by adding:
• 4-9 kg or 5% to 10% for upper body exercise or,
• 14-18 kg or 10% to 20% for lower body exercise.

1. Provide a 2 to 4 minute rest period.
2. Make a load increase:
• 4-9 kg or 5% to 10% for upper body exercise or,
• 14-18 kg or 10% to 20% for lower body exercise.

1. Instruct the athlete to attempt a 1RM.
2. If the athlete was successful, provide a 2 to 4 minute rest period and go back to step 7.

If the athlete failed, provide a 2 to 4 minute rest period, then decrease the load by subtracting:

• 4-9 kg or 5% to 10% for upper body exercise or,
• 14-18 kg or 10% to 20% for lower body exercise.

AND then go back to step 8.

Continue increasing or decreasing the load until the athlete can complete one repetition with proper exercise technique. Ideally, the athlete’s 1RM will be measured within three to five testing sets.

Estimating a 1RM

When maximal strength testing is not warranted, testing with a 10RM load (and then estimating or predicting the 1RM) can be a suitable secondary option. The protocol for 10RM is similar to that for 1RM testing, bat each set requires 10 repetitions, not one.

Multiple-RM Testing Based on Goal Repetitions

A third option for determining training loads requires the strength and conditioning professional to first decide the number of repetition (i.e., the goal repetitions) the athlete will perform in the actual program for the exercise being tested. For example, if the strength and conditioning professional decides that the athlete should perform six repetitions for the bench press exercise in the training program, the multiple/RM testing protocol should have will result in six repetitions (6RM).

Assigning Load and Repetitions Based on the Training Goal

The training goal is attained when the athlete lifts a load of a certain percentage of the 1RM for specific number of repetitions. The number of repetitions and percentage of the 1RM shows table 12.

Table 12 Load and Repetition Assignments Based on the Training Goal

If the athlete can perform two or more repetitions over his or her assigned repetition goal for a given exercise in the last set in two consecutive workouts, weight should be added to that exercise for next training session. For example, strength and conditioning professional assigns three sets of 10 repetitions in the bench press exercise and the athlete performs all 10 repetitions in all set. After several workout sessions, the athlete is able to complete 12 repetitions in third (last) set for two consecutive workouts. In the following training, the load for that exercise should be increased. Examples of load increases shows table 13 (for training programs with load volumes of approximately three sets of 5 to 10 repetitions).

Table 13 Examples of Load Increases

Step 6: Volume

Volume is to the total amount of weight lifted in a training session, and a set is a group of repetitions sequentially performed before the athlete stops to rest. Repetition-volume is the total number of repetitions performed during a workout session, and load-volume is the total number of set then multiplied by the weight lifted per repetition. For example, the load-volume for two sets of 10 repetitions with 50 kg would be expressed as 2 x 10 x 50 kg. Training volume is directly based on the athlete’s resistance training goal. Table 14 provides a summary of guidelines for the number of repetitions and sets commonly associated with strength, power, hypertrophy, and muscular endurance training programs.

Table 14 Volume Assignments Based on the Training Goal

Step 7: Rest Period

The time dedicated to recovery between sets and exercises is called the rest period or interest rest. The length of the rest period between sets and exercises is highly dependent on the goal of training, the relative load lifted, and the athlete’s training status (if the athlete is not in good physical condition, rest period initially may need to be longer than typically assigned). The recommended rest period lengths for strength, power, hypertrophy, and muscular endurance programs are shown in table 15.

Table 15 Rest Period Length Assignments Based on The Training Goal

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Endurance sports are activities which are performed during longer time interval and which prevailingly use aerobic metabolism involvement. Aerobic metabolism prevails during physical exercise which is longer than than 2-3 minutes at a low, middle or submaximal intensity load. Exercies used are usually locomotions or repeated cyclic movements. Many scientific works proved that aerobic endurance may last for a longer time before fatique appears and that it can last even in the state of fatique. Also recovery rates are highly related to quality of endurance abilities and faster recovery allows the athlete to shorten rest intervals within and between training sessions and increase overall training load. 

The most recognized model of endurance abilities physiology is the Cardiovascular/Anaerobic model, initially suggested by British physiologists A.V. Hill and associates in the mid-1920s. This model basically posits that a lack of oxygen in working muscles is what ultimately limits exercise performance. The cause of fatigue is primarily in cardiorespiratory system and utilization of oxygen. Most adherents to this model use the terms of VO2max, lactate threshold, and running economy when discussing aerobic or endurance training or physiology.  Thanks to the new knowledge’s from this field of exercise physiology were made several new models from various points of view, e.g Neuromuscular fatigue model, Muscle trauma model, Biomechanical model, Thermoregulatory model, etc. Every of these models have wanted to supplement the initial model of Hill. The most complex revised physiological model proposed Nakes (2002) as a Central Governor Model.  He draw from the original cardiovascular anaerobic model and four additional models that regulate short-time, maximal or long-time submaximal exercise. The basis of this idea is that fatigue is caused by CNS, which is not able to activate muscles to following activities or activities on a desired level. The brain protects the body by regulating power output during any form of exercise with the ultimate goal of maintaining homeostasis and protecting life. Muscle fibre power output is not regulated by factors in the muscle itself but in the brain based on continuous information from senses of the whole body. Fatigue is a relative process and as a consequence of it the exercise intensity is constantly changed during exercise as the brain either employs additional fibres to increase power output or to decrease fibre activation to adjust power output (energy) based on its calculations.

The quality of endurance performance is limited by a number of factors out of which the most important are those which are related primarily to oxygen transport, energy utilization (cardiorespiratory system, blood volume, total mass of haemoglobin, oxidative enzymes, fat utilization etc.) and to neuromuscular function and economy of movement (quality of CNS and peripheral nerves, strength, speed, endurance, coordination, technique, performance) and quality of this factors can be called a physiological profile of an athlete.

For training needs, endurance can be divided into four groups according to dominant metabolism which supplies energy to muscles:

• Speed endurance – duration 20-30 seconds, alactate anaerobic metabolism is the basic energy system ensuring motor activity at the start of movement (phosphagen system).
• Short-time endurance – between 30 seconds and 2 (3) minutes, motor activity of high intensity is primarily supplied with energy by anaerobic lactate system (fast glycolysis).
• Middle-time endurance – between 2 (3) minutes and 8-10 minutes, from this period on, aerobic system is dominant but the portion of anaerobic lactate metabolism can still be big (fast and slow glycolysis).
• Long-time endurance– from approx. 10 minutes till several hours. Motor activity is ensured by aerobic energy system from more than 90 % (oxidative system).

Aerobic and anaerobic threshold

As we proceed from walking to jogging and further to running and sprinting, we gradually employ slow and then fast muscle fibres. The start of the exercise involves mostly aerobic energy system, than slowly anaerobic system is activated until it finally becomes dominant, the fibers create lactit acid (LA) the increase in which causes an unpleasant feeling in the muscles and we are forced to slow down or stop. Aerobic threshold (AT) and anaerobic threshold (ANT) represent for us a transition zone which means increasing share of anaerobic energy metabolism. 

AT defines the top of easy training load and is defined as the point where LA begins to rise, usually around the level of 2-3 mmol/L. ANT is the point beyond which LA levels rise steeply. Such a range is called maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) and can vary between  3-8 mmol/L depending on every individual.  An athlete can move for several hours at AT, but beyond ANT fatique appear quickly. It is the upper limit for utilizing lactate from the muscle and transition zone in which fibers of the II type (fast fibers) get involved more and more. With proper training system, it is possible to increase the intensity or velocity at the level of both thresholds. The level of ANT is highly related to success in events lasting for 15 minutes or more, such as longer running, swimming, cross country-skiing, rowing or cycling and is important for all endurance sports.

Energy System of Endurance Performance

Endurance performance is a process of long-time static or dynamic contractions of various muscles, which requires a perfect transfer of neural signals from the motor cortex (CNS) to the muscles, which have to be supplied with great amount of energy. During endurance activities, both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems (depending on the type of sport) are made use of. The closer to two minutes the duration of loading is, the lower the aerobic metabolism share in overall performance is; and the longer the duration is, the more dominant the aerobic system becomes.

Table 16 Proportion of the share of anaerobic and aerobic metabolism during time at maximal movement intensity.

Anaerobic  energy system

This system is the dominant contributor in exercises of high intensity lasting from 20-30s to 100 – 120s. However, with intensive activity in duration of about 2 minutes, both energy systems are balanced and with increasing time, the portion of anaerobic system decreases and for example during high intensity exercises lasting for 4-6 minutes its portion is still high, of 20-30%. Anaerobic energy system (fast glycolysis) is the term for non-oxidative decomposition of glycogen, which is not very effective. This way restores a small amount of ATP (3 units for each molecule of glucose) while producing a by-product, lactic acid (LA). Accumulating LA reduces muscle force, makes muscle contraction more difficult and leads to fatigue. 

Optimizing efficiency of anaerobic metabolism is required for sports such as mid-distance events in track and field for 800 and 1,500 meters, 200 meter swimming, 200 and 500 meter canoeing, 500-1,500 meter speed skating, most events in gymnastics, alpine skiing etc.

Aerobic energy system

Aerobic energy system (oxidative system) is the primary energy source for events ranging from two-three minutes to over several hours (typical endurance sports and activities). Aerobic metabolism starts working slower and it takes 60-80 second to start producing sufficient amount of energy for ATP resynthesis because at this time interval, cardiorespiratory system starts to develop slowly into higher efficiency the and muscles start to be better supplied with oxygen which makes efficient ATP creation possible through oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Maximal output of these systems is reached after several minutes of maximal effort with regard to given intensit.

Adaptation to Aerobic Load

The system of endurance training is a complex process which has to respect the basic natural relations and biological adaptation (training stimuli, stress) with the help of training load to reach a higher level of fitness. The strategy for endurance development draws on from basic adaptation cycle, training or performance development or such stages which form the contents on training process during whole-year training macrocycle.

Thanks to systematic aerobic load, the athlete is able to work at higher intensity of load, prolongs the duration of exercise and works more efficiently. Body adaptations which are in progress with the help of endurance training can be either acute or long-term in nature.

Acute reaction to aerobic load brings about adaptations which influence the process of energy transfer and reserves and working capability of a muscle. The time of the first reaction with the help of periodic stimuli lasts from several days to weeks. This stage includes the optimization of ATP resynthesis connected with respective homeostatic responses, activation of oxygen transfer, use of energy reserves and better coordination of working muscles, and basic morpho-functional changes in muscles. During load of lower intensity, an athlete is able to resist fatigue, train, practise or exercise for a longer time; his or her coordination gets better, recovery improves, energy stores increase and movement effectiveness grows. Adaptation to training stimuli of the same load is manifested mainly by lower heart rate (HR), blood pressure and respiratory rate.

Structural and functional changes which appear during prolonged time intervals in ordinary training are related to long-term adaptation. The result of endurance or aerobic training is for instance increased concentrations of myoglobin and haemoglobin, activity of mitochondrial enzymes, increased respiratory volume and oxygen transfer (bigger aerobic volume and performance) or increased heart performance. Main cellular and morpho-functional adaptations are for example visible in bigger size and number of mitochondria, capillar density and heart muscle adaptation. Thanks to aerobic endurance training, the volume of blood increases by 10-15 %, which means the average volume of blood increases from 5 liters to 5.5-6 liters. The quality of heart performance improves, which means that blood volume per minute pumped into circulation by the hear increases; this is related to better aerobic capacity and performance. Respiratory system performance improves, which ensures more air in smaller number of inflations, mainly thanks to bigger volume of a single inflation. A long-term type of reaction is mainly adaptation to specific performance, which lasts from several months to several years. After frequently repeated training stimuli, changes in the athlete’s body appear (the athlete’s body contains less hypodermic fat, body posture improves), muscles get stronger, during load of high intensity less lactic acid is accumulated, resting heart rate decreases, resting blood pressure decreases and both overall fitness and psychic reaction to load improve.

Training endurance abilities

The achievement of personal maximal performance in endurance sports is a long-term process. The most of top endurance athletes are aged over 25. The development of endurance involves a long training process of big volume with gradually increasing quality.  

Systematic and regular endurance training usually starts around the age of 13-15 years and the individual top performance can be reached after 12–15 years of a very demanding training process. Aerobic endurance is normally developed before 13-15 years of age but it should be mainly with the help of non-specific means, exercises and non-intensive methods as a part of general fitness development and training of a young athlete.

Therefore, the main aims of endurance aerobic training are the improvement of personal limiting factors, which means mainly improving personal physiological profile and motor abilities. Simultaneously with these important goals of aerobic training, race technique and tactics experience must be improved and psychic qualities must be fixed. These goals of training are achieved with the help of the right type of training, proper training system, and methods and means of training.

Every biological improvement caused by training stimuli is carried out in cycles. The most benefits of a specific training process come together with load that matches the orginial condition with duration around six weeks. After six weeks, it is necessary to increase volume, intensity and frequency of training load, because a training program which is exceeds six weeks becomes less effective after this period. Without increasing load and variability of training, this process cannot effectively continue and the development of training and performance is slow. This six-week period is divided to four stages.

During first stage (up to about 10 days), the improvement of movement coordination is prevalent. During the second stage, energy store inreases, the performance of energy system improves and changes in the muscle structure begins (up to about 20 days).  After rebuilding muscle structure, it is necessary to renew neural control of motor ability on a higher level. This is the aim of the third stage, which is finished till about 30 days.  During the last stage, many systems get coordinated on a higher level such as cardiorespiratory system, vegetative neural system, hormonal system, centre of thermoregulacy, or immunity system. The fourth stage completes the whole cycle of optimal benefit of the respective training load and brings this six-week period to an end.

Zones of Training Intensity in Sports Training

Every coach should know zones for anaerobic or aerobic training. Organizing the system of loading into specific zones of training intensity is usual interest of coaches. They use several zones of load intensity to stress the importance of training in the whole range of energy systems. The number and range of training zones have been recommended in coaching literature and a standardized scale consists of up to six different intensity zones. To develop training and performance of endurance athletes, it is recommended to make use of four intensity zones, which cover entire training needs. It is important to use a single system of intensity zones following the specifics of a given sport.

Intensity Zone 1

Within this zone, load intensity is under anaerobic threshold (ANT) and it should help to improve athlete´s aerobic metabolism, which vital in most sports, especially those in which oxygen consumption represents a limiting factor of performance. Among these sports, there are for example medium- and long-track running, swimming, sculling, cross-country skiing, cycling events etc., but it is important also for other sports such as a games.

Many coaches and authors call it aerobic threshold training (AT), which develops basic functional efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system and the economy of metabolic system and increases the capacity to resist stress during effort which lasts for a longer time. The purpose of aerobic threshold training is to increase aerobic energy capacity through using a high volume of work without interruption at a constant or alternating pace. Average LA concentration is 2-3 mmol/l; a typical range is between 50 – 70 % of VO2max or 70 – 75 % HRmax. The low intensity load makes up the vast majority of a training process volume (about 70-75 % HR). It is important for achieving desirable functional improvements that form basis for training of higher intensity. Appropriate training methods of developing basic endurance within intensity zone 1 are both uninterrupted or long, slow distance methods and fartlek. 

An optimum period to improve aerobic performance is the preseason period, however, evens during pre-competition and race seasons, we need regular load of lower stimuli to keep aerobic metabolism on a required level.

Aerobic compensatory training is also part of intensity zone 1. This intensity makes easier athlete´s recovery after competitions and high-intensity training which are typical of intensity zones 2 and 3. It means loading with very low intensity (about 50% of HRmax) and it can be planned for all stages of a macrocycle in order to eliminate metabolites from the system and to speed up the process of recovery and regeneration. It is training of active recovery and we can use cycling, running or swimming of low intensity for 20-40 min, which helps to speed up recovery. 

Training Intensity Zone 2

This zone consists of training load which is equivalent to higher intensity of exercise but the rate of the diffusion of LA into blood is constant in relation to the rate of its removal. It is training with intensity in the area of anaerobic threshold. The main aim of the training is to improve the athlete’s ability to utilize higher LA production during long-term load, keep high intensity of load without accumulation of LA (for a period longer than 5 minutes). The ability to remove LA from blood circulation and transfer it to muscles to further use it as a source of energy is an adaptive reaction which postpones the start of fatique and improves performance. Intensity is around ANT or slightly below of above it, which means between 3 mmol/l LA and personal level of ANT. The range of load intensity is between 75-85 % VO2max or 80-93 % HRmax. This load helps to shift ANT curve towards higher speed of cyclic movement. Training within this zone can be further divided into two types: uninterrupted continuous or long, slow distance training and interval training, whereas both of them are of the same relative intensity. Load at the level of ANT through uninterrupted continuous or long, slow distance training and interval training are very much useful if we begin with specific endurence. This type of training together with more repetitions (between five and seven repetitions) can stimulate anaerobic metabolism without any significant accumulation of LA. This intensity is followed by hard training which is unpleasant and painful.

Intensity zone 3

The training of this intensity stimulates the increase of maximal oxygen consumption through increased need of oxygen transfer and the efectiveness of its utilization. During both training and competition, cardiorespiratory system, nervous and locomotive systems are very much stressed with load of such intensity. Better transfer of oxygen to muscle cells and especially better efficiency of oxygen utilization are important factors for better performance in sports in which the aerobic system is dominant or at least very important. The rate of LA diffusion into the blood starts to exceed the rate of utilization and the main physiological aim of training intensity zone 3 is to increase resistance to LA accumulation, the adaption to the increased creation of LA, better utilization of LA from working muscles and increasing physiological and psychological resistance to pain or spasm during training and demanding competitions. This type of load is often used towards the end of preseason and in first transition period to build the athlete’s maximum functional capacity and during competition period to maintain high level of performance.

Load intensity within this zone should be between 85 % to VOpeak or 90 (93) - 100% of HRmax. The number of repetitions performed during one training session depends on the duration of the training: the longer the duration, the smaller number of repetitions. The main training method for developing this intensity zone is mainly the intermittent method.

Training Intensity Zone 4

Phosphagen energy system (ATP-CP) is dominant in all sports which require to exercise speed and explosiveness. Trainig of this intensity can improve and maintain short-time speed-time endurance. However, this intensity has its justification also in endurance training, primarily for developing movement economy, technical and tactic skills which make use of ATP-CP system as the source of energy. Athletes have to make use of very short intervals (not exceeding 20 seconds) of short and explosive exercises of intensity over 100 % effort with resting period long enough to fully recover the source of energy. The main training method is the intermittent method with sufficient resting period.

Practical application of all intensity zones must be planned according to the athlete’s potential and performance, his or her resistance to load and according to the specific stage of the training process. The application of intensity zones to an athlete´s training is more familiar of individual sport coaches but it is valid for all sports.

Frequency of training stimuli

The frequency of training stimuli is an important part of the training process and it very much affects the improvement of training and performance. The training stimulus which follows can be applied only in the period when the athlete’s body has been fully recovered from the preceeding intensive training unit. The variability of the types of load and active recovery during the whole macrocycle is therefore very important.

The frequency of training stimuli is a variable in the training process which affects the improvement of aerobic performance, mainly during the first stage of systematic training of children, untrained individuals and young athletes. The basic frequency of training sessions at the beginning of a regular training process should be three times per wekk for children, less fit athletes or to maintain health. Performance endurance athletes need 5-7 training sessions per week and top athletes from 7 to 20 training sets.

Basic Relationships between the Variables of Training Load

Optimum results of the training process can be achieved through systematic alternation of the training contents, the size of load (volume, intensity), training means, methods, frequency of stimuli, organisational forms etc. To make the development of performance gradual and systematic, it is necessary first to increase the frequency of stimuli, then we can slowly increase the volume of intensity and the last parameter which much be increased is load intensity. Training intensity is of lower significance at the beginning of regular training but training of higher intensity usually leads to improved specific performance, faster reaching better performance, for a short time though, if required training volume has not been mastered.

Methods of Aerobic Endurance Training

System of endurance training includes a number of methods which are suitable for developing different kinds of endurance. Every method has its own characteristic effect for development of specific preconditions. Some methods can have similar impact on the athlete’s adaptation provided we use it under similar conditions. The training methods for aerobic or anaerobic endurance development can be divided to several groups:

• Uninterrupted methods
• Intermittent methods
• Fartlek

Uninterrupted Methods

These methods include continous method and method of alternating intensity.

Continuous method means load with constant level of intensity or speed. The load lasts usually for longer than 30 minutes (up to several hours). This method is used to develop basic (general) endurance, mixed aerobic-anaerobic metabolism, or to maintain the level of reached endurance adaptation. Load of lower intenisty (below 80-85 % HR max) is suitable to develop energy resources, improving the ability to supply working muscles with energy substrate for a long time and developing movement economy. Medium or submaximal intensity is used to increase speed at ANT level. High or submaximal intensity is used in testing, in check race or in testing the ability to maintain racing speed. The possibility to incrase VO2max is lower than when using different methods (e.g. interval training) but within training process for novices or children, even this method is able to help to improve this parameter, mainly during the initial months of regular training.

Uninterrupted method of alternating intensity

During uninterrupted load of alternating intensity, the athlete alternates, regularly or irregularly, different intensity and length of sections. Load intensity can vary from low to very high. The number, length and intensity of sections is usually planned.

Intermittent Methods

This group includes interval methods and repetition methods. The main difference between these methods is the condition of the athlete before starting the next unit. During interval training, another repetition starts with insufficient recovery of the athlete. During repetition training, another unit starts only with relative recovery after a longer pause between units.

Interval method

Interval training contains several load units of high intensity (from submaximal to maximal). As a rule, we distinguish between short, medium and long interval methods according to the time-period of load. Short intervals last between 45 and 60 seconds, medium from 1 to 3 minutes and long 3-5 minutes. Time for rest is relatively short. Resting period for short and medium interval lasts 60-90 seconds and for long interval it is approximately half of the time for which lasts one unit, or until HR decreases down to 120-130 beats per minute. It is recommended to spend the resting period with active acitve rest (walking, jogging etc.), which improves removal of LA from stressed muscles. Interval training has a great influence on cardiorespiratory system and it is the best way to increase the value of maximal oxygen consumption (aerobic perfromance and capacity). The main aim of interval training is preparation for specific competition load.

The interval method is not suitable for children and it can be applied to the youth training only with great care. Children are not ready for anaerobic load of longer duration and the youth are only developing this ability. The incorporation of intervals into youth training can lead to very steep rise in performance development in relatively short time, which is followed by stagnation or decrease in performance, or can lead to the ovetraining.

Examples of interval training:

During natural interval, load lasts for 90 seconds and rest for 60-90 seconds or until HR is as low as 120 – 130 b.p.m.

Extensive interval method recommends the load of submaximal load for 3-5 minutes followed by 3-5 minute rest. The impact of this type of interval training concerns mainly respiratory system and ANT level.

Repetition method

This type of training involves repetitions of several legs. The intensity of a repeated leg is most often at the competition pace lavel but it can also be submaximal speed or also slightly faster for a given distance. This training is not directly connected to development of VO2max, it is related to improving or maintaining race pace which is different for milers and 10-kilometer runners. These legs are usually longer than 5 minutes. Resting period fasts from 5 to 15 (or 20) minutes.

Fartlek

This method has originated in Swedish training system and it means the play with speed.

Changes of load (intensity and length of legs) are included in training according to personal feelings of every athlete, natural conditions, profile of terrain etc. The content of fartlek is not usually given in advance. During training, the intensity or the length of legs changes irregularly. Minimum duration of fartlek training is 30 minutes.

Another kind of fartlek has originated in Polish training school. Coach determines what training means, intensity and legs are to be included in training units.  The place and time of being carried out during training is on the athlete’s decision. 

System of Endurance Training

Endurance training is a process which can be divided into several parts. Each part covers certain specifics of endurance development. Performance of endurance athletes is based mainly on fitness factors and during training process, general fitness and general endurance are being developed first, followed by specific endurance.

General endurance and general fitness

It is started with general ability to resist fatique during physical activity but without any significant influence on sports performance. It is very useful for leisure sport activities, for non-elite athletes to maintain basic fitness or functional and energy systems. General endurance and general fitness on a good level is the basis for athletes to achieve better recovery, increase volume and intensity of training process or higher frequency of traning stimuli etc. This type of general fitness and general endurance can be improved with various cyclic movements such as walking, running, cycling, canoing, sculling or working out on specific fitness machines.

Specific endurance

It is an ability to resist fatique during specific sports movement for a longer time period; both with low intensity of load and during competitions with hight intensity of load. Training specific endurance is closely connected to maximum personal performance in a specific sport and training system must contain large-scale proportion of specific training means, methods and intensities.

Stages of endurance training

Within the training process of endurance development, periods or stages are usually planned during which the foundations for further improvements are established. The stages must focus on specific needs of each sport. With long-term endurance development (years), we have to apply step by step improving physical and physiological preconditions in time intervals of different duration (stages) during annual training process. The length of every stage depends on the specifics of each sport. General principles of endurance development in all sports are: successiveness, adequacy, suitable volume and intensity, and gradual impelementation of specific training procedures and methods. There are several models suitable for developing aerobic performance. During simple competition model (monocycle), the athletes develop endurance in three stages – general endurance, introductin to specific endurance and specific endurance. During a two peaks model (bi-cycle) with shorter periods, two stages with two periods are usually applied – development of basic endurance and development of specific endurance.

Stages of general endurance

During this stage, the athlete creates or maintains basic level of endurance which is necessary for further development. Athletes improve general or basic specific endurance and they are able to postpone the the start of fatique during long-time load of low intensity. This stage lasts from 6 weeks to 3 months, depending on the required level of adaptation and the kind of sport and it is in progress during transitory period and preseason of annual cycle.

During this stage, any development or adjustment of training load must be carried out by increasing volume with low intensity load. This training regime does not expose the athlete to high level of effort of muscle or physiological system and the athlete trains mainly below individual ANT. This load induces glycogen depletion in the muscle, increase lipid metabolism and force the body to maintain or enhance the acquired functional adaptations within the cardiorespiratory or muscle system. The most suitable training methods in this stage are both uninterrupted methods and fartlek. Load should be mainly below 85 % of HRmax. This represents intensity zone 1 and partly also intensity zone 2. General and specific training means are usually balanced. The best training means is bipedal or quadrupedal movement such as cycling, running, walking, cross-country skiing, nordic walking, canoing, sculling or long-time working out on fitness machines.

Stages of introduction to specific endurance

The aim of this stage is to improve physiological adaptation of the athlete and focus on motor activities which are specific for a given sport. Aerobic endurance is still the main element of training although anaerobic activities start to be part of training program as well. Depending on the difficulty of motor structures and the rate of the athlete’s adaptation, this stage lasts from 6 weeks to 4 months depending on the kind of sport.

At the beginning of this stage, higher volume of load remains and intensity starts to increase slowly. When required level of basic endurance is achieved, it is necessary to include a higher number of specific traning means and intensive methods of endurance development into training process in order to further improvement of training and performance. Now, the duration of stimuli (volume) gradually shortens until it finally reaches medium levels while load intensity can move within the area of individual ANT whereas some training units can exceed ANT. This should be applied with increasing frequency towards the end of this stage. All methods, both uninterrupted and fatlek and intermittent, are suitable. All intensity zones take part in this stage; within the initial part, the volume in zones 3 and 4 is small, but in the other part, the volume is increasing so that is possible to reach higher level of training and performance. During this stage, specific training means of the given sport become prevalent in training process.

Stages of specific endurance

In this stage, maximum potential of endurance performance of the athlete must be achieved. Intensity reaches the highest level possible. To further increase the volume of high-intensity training, we must decrease volume. Duration of training units or load must respect the specifics of the sport and training is focused on the dominant energy system. This stage can last approximately for 3-5 months, during preseason and competition season in annual training cycle. During this stage, high rate of specific and race training means are involved in the training process.

The main recommended method for development and maintaining high level of aerobic performance is intermittent method. However, we never must forget to maintain good level of basic endurance through training units with load of lower intensity with the help of uninterrupted methods and fartlek.

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There are different manifestation of speed in training, e.g. the speed of a sprinter in a 100-meter run, reached javelin release speed, maximum speed of the starting run of the athlete in a long-distance jump, the speed of changing position of the middle player from the middle part of the net into side area, break-free with the ball in basketball etc. Sports performance is conditioned by performing a given movement with maximum speed possible. External manifestation of the resulting speed of both cyclic movement and single-speed movement are always related to as fast carrying out of the movement as possible along defined specific track through muscle contraction. The specificity of movement is given by specific skill in the sports discipline. Manifestations of speed in sports are always characteristic in their maximum intensity. Acyclic movement (throws, casts) can be performed against slight resistance (up to 20 % 1RM). Cyclic movement (sprint) is usually performed without resistance without any significant change is direction. During cyclic movement, a significant change in direction can occur accompanied with decrease and subsequent increase in speed and movement frequency (movement of player with the ball in handball). In this case, it is specific manifestation of speed which is called agility. As far as the duration of the performance of specific motor activity is concerned, it is speed up to 15 seconds (duration exceeding 15 seconds is speed endurance). An independent part of speed abilities is represented by the scope of reaction speed. Reaction speed is manifested by speed as a reaction to a given stimulus (e.g. reaction to start-up shot in 100-meter sprint) and it is understood as time lasting from stimulus to the start of motor activity.

Speed can generally be defined as an ability to reach high speed and frequency of cyclic, single-speed (acyclic) or combined movement through muscle contraction.

Figure 13 Basic areas of speed abilities

The most important areas of speed abilities from the point of view of sports training are represented in Figure 14.

Figure 14 Significant areas of the complex of speed abilities

Cyclic speed (locomotion speed) is understood as an ability to reach high frequency of cyclic movement through muscle contraction without any significant resistance in duration unitl 15 seconds.

Single speed (acyclic speed) represents an ability to reach maximum speed of the movement without resistance or against slight resistance through muscle contraction.

Agility is an ability to change direction of movement quickly; it is accompanied by sudden decrease and subsequent increase in acceleration and speed of the movement.

Speed endurance is understood as an ability to maintain high speed of movement for a time period longer than 15 s or an ability to repeatedly produce high speed of movement with minimum resting period between individual repetitions.

Reaction speed is an ability to react to a given stimulus as fast as possible.

Development of speed is closely related to strength development; mainly to development of fast speed and reactive strength. To be able to perform a given motor task (motor ability), the athlete must apply strength as fast as possible. Strength is understood as a product of mass and acceleration. Strength which is necessary for performing movement is produced by skeletal muscle. Speed performed in sports is affected by three basic parameters:

• Strength impulse which is given by an ability to apply as big force as possible in restrected time given by a specific sports event. Strength impulse is then equal to the change of momentum of the athlete or tools.
• Net power output which is understood as the result of the product of applied force and speed while performing a specific movement within a given sports skill.
• Stretch shortening cycle (SSC) which represents a combination of eccentric and subsequent concentric muscle contraction.

Maximum value of strength impulse is importance in situations where it is necessary to apply a big amount of force in short time. A good example of this is sprint during which support and flight phases of the left and right lower limbs alternate regularly. During support phase, the runnes has only 0.1-0.2 seconds to take off from the surface do another flight phase. Within such short time, the athlete must applie as high rate of force development (RFD) as possible at take-off; whereas the maximum growth in force occurs only at times between 0.6 and 0.8 s. Te speed of force development is presented in Figure 15. Training of maximum rate of force development within limited time interval in specific sports skills is an important part of training performing speed.

Figure 15 Rate of force development

Net power output plays an important role in training performing speed. For instance, in javelin throw, the length of throw depends on two basic parameters: release angle and release speed. Choosing release angle is a matter of thechnique of this skill. Reached release speed is related to reached net power output. The athlete must be able to reach maximum net power output with mass defined in advance (in this case it is the weight of the javelin). Net power output results from the relationship of velocity of movement and force which causes the movement. The relationship between velocity of movement and the acting force is indirect. Maximal force is reached at a low velocity and on the other hand, at maximum velocity, the acting force is small. In both of these extreme situations, net power output is low. Maximal net power output is a compromise between velocity of movement and the amount of acting force. The athlete must act on the javelin with optimum force which ranges, as described in theory, around 40% of maximal force and around 30% of maximal velocity. The above relationship is presented in Figure 16. Another example can be bench press exercise. It has been proved that for the training method of dynamic effort, load within the range of 30-50 % 1RM is most appropriate for professional football players. With such load, the players reached maximal net output and therefore the load is most appropriate from the point of view of traning stimulus and subsequent adaptations.

Figure 16 Relationship between applied force and the velocity of movement

The principle of training maximal net power output is an important part of training performing speed. In sports disciplines such as sprint, the athlete must reach maximum performance with the weight of his/her own body. In cast disciplines like javelin throwing, the athlete must reach maximum performance with weight of the tool defined in advance. For instance, for a squat with jump performed by a discus thrower, the load of 30 % of maximal force was determined as optimum to reach maximal net power output. This phenomenon is used in training where it is possible to make load parameters individual and optimum to reach maximal net power output for a specific exercise (e.g. bench press).

Many motor skills contain the stretch shortening cycle (SSC). The principle of SSC is a combination of eccentric stretch and immediate concentric shortening of the muscle tendon complex during movement. With such a combination of movements, accumulated elastic energy during eccentric contraction is used. An example of this is landing after block in volleyball with subsequent move away from the net. At first, there is a stretch of the triceps surae and accumulation of elastic energy which is subsequently used while shortening during the first step away from the net. Motor skills which contain stretch shortenin cycle lead to improvements in mechanical efficiency of the movement, impulse of force and muscle power through elastic energy. Elastic energy applied during SSC positively affects muscle stiffness and neuromuscular activation. SSC is prevalent mainly in sports which include running, jumping, or other explosive changes in momentum or velocity.

Development of speed abilities is one of the most difficult tasks of training. It is because speed ability is to a great extent affected by innate dispositions (only about 20 % can be affected by training). Movement velocity is determined by mutual relationships of individual factors. Key innate factors affecting speed abilities are as follows:

• Qualities of the central nervous system, mainly the speed of stimulus transmission.
• The ability of the nervous system to quickly alternate stimulation and decrement during muscle innervation which directly affects the speed of contraction and relaxation of muscles.
• The ability of the central nervous system to react sensitively to only low level of stretch reflex which appears in the muscle spindle (muscle length sensor) and it evokes subsequent contraction during muscle stretch.
• The ability of intermuscular coordination between antagonist and agonist muscle groups.
• First, the amount of creatinphosphate (CP) and ATP for the start of motor activity and second, available amount of carbohydrates.
• Predominance of fast muscle fibers (muscle fibers of type II).

General parameters of load during speed development

• Load intensity:maximal
• Work interval:10 to 15s
• Rest interval:2-5 min
• Number of repetitions:10-15 repetitions
• Way of rest:active

Load intensity:

Training performing speed is conditioned by maximum concentration on performed motor activity with maximum effort during the performance. If the motor activity is not performed with maximal intensity, there is no sense in carrying on with the training.

Work interval:

Work interval results first from the needs of specific sports performance and, second, it depends on selected development method.

Rest interval:

Sufficient rest interval during performing speed development is essential for:

• Necessary resynthesis of energy resources (Table 17).
• Removing part of oxygen dept which appeared during preceeding anerobic activity.
• Central nervous system recovery.

Table 17 CP resynthesis depending on the duration of rest interval

Number of repetitions:

The number of repetitions is determined by the moment of decrease in maximal intensity of the motor activity. If the trainees start to manifest signs of fatique, it is necessary to end speed training.

Way of rest:

During rest interval, it is recommended to employ additional movements of low intensity (walking, jog, trot, easy stretching etc.). An active way of rest keeps the activity of the central nervous system for further speed load.

The most favourable conditions for developing “pure” speed come at the age of 12-13 when the basis of neural manifestations, force mobility, lability and speed of neural processes is being created. Further improvement in speed occurs due to improved technique and strength abilities development.

Velocity of running

Bipedal running is a ballistic mode of locomotion with an alternating flight phase and single-leg support phase (by comparison, walking is nonbalistic without flight phase, and the stance alternates between double and single support phase). Sprinting is a series of running strides that repeatedly launch the athlete’s body as a projectile at maximal acceleration or velocity (or both), usually over brief distances and durations. Running speed is the interaction of stride frequency and stride length. Differences between novice and elite athlete:

• Elite sprinters achieve greater stride length and are capable of increasing it up to 45 m from a static start, whereas novices achieve their maximum stride length at 25 m.
• Elite sprinters achieve greater stride frequency (5 strides per second) and are capable of increasing it up to 25 m from a static start, whereas novices achieve their maximum stride frequency at 10 to 15 m.
• Elite sprinters produce greater initial forces and velocities at the start and reach maximal velocities of up to 12 m/s after 5 to 6 seconds (45-55 m), whereas novices reach their top speed at 20 to 30 m.

Stride frequency also tends to vary among individuals and generally seems to be more trainable than stride length. As the athlete accelerates to his or her maximum stride rate, ground contact time decreases from 0.2 second during acceleration to 0.1 second at top speed.

The most basic aim of sprint training is to reach high stride frequency with optimum stride length in trajectory which can be desribed as explosive take-off with minumum vertical impulse.

Methods of developing speed and agility

The methods of developing speed can be divided into primary, secondary and tertiary. The methods must focus on key parameters which affect speed. Among the key parameters that influence speed, there are:

• Force impulse
• Net power output
• Stretch shortening cycle (SCC)
• Stride frequency
• Stride length

Primary Methods

The primary method for developing speed is performing proper movement technique of a specific motor ability. The speed of performing an acquired skill increases depending on the quality of the skill. At the beginning of motor learning, the athlete should perform activities at submaximal speed to fix correct mechanism. As he or she gradually masters the skills, performence in the given task can come closer to or exceed full competition speed.

Secondary Methods

Secondary methods include sprint resistance and sprint assistance. The aim is to develop special skills in modified performance conditions.

Resistance method

This method includes gravity-resisted running (e.g., uphill or upstair sprinting) or other means of achieving an overload effect (e.g., harness, parachute, or weighted vest). The objective is to provide resistance without arresting the athlete’s movement mechanics, primarily as a means of improving explosive strength and stride length. In general, ≥10% changes in movement resistance have detrimental effects on technique.

Assistance method

Sprint assistance includes gravity-assisted running (e.g., downhill sprinting on a shallow 3-7°slope), high-speed towing (e.g., harness and stretch cord), or other means of achieving an overspeed effect. The objective is to provide assistance without significantly altering the athlete’s movement mechanics, primarily as a means of improving stride rate. Regardless of whether the athlete actually achieves overspeed or not, this method may also improve quality of effort during normal maximum-velocity sprinting by reducing the time and energy needed to accelerate. In general, apply assistance conservatively, exceeding maximum velocity by ≤10%.

Contrast method

It is based on the combination of resistance and assistance methods. Load under natural conditions is combined with load under difficult or on the other hand under easy conditions.

Tertiary Methods

Tertiary methods include flexibility, strength and speed-endurance training. Their aim is to develop general skills and abilities.

Flexibility

Flexibility represents an important condition for speed developing. Small joint scope and insufficient elasticity of skeletal muscles limits the athlete in maximum use of the overall capacity of the speed of a given movement. An example of this is insufficient stretching of the muscles of the back thigh the consequence of which will be limiting stride length while sprinting. An ability to fully stretch the leg before recovery stage is a predondition for reaching correct ready position on the groud and subsequently also landing. Inadequate flexibility may therefore result in incorrect foot posture, longer ground contact and bigger braking force while running. The issue of flexibility development is further discussed in Chapter 10.

Strength

Athletes must develop fast and reactive strength in order to maximise their speed and agility. This does not mean that they should only perform movements of low resistance and high speed during their training. The ability to reach high movement speed desires an ability to apply strength within the whole range of net muscle power output. Therefore, the program of strength traning must focuse on the whole strength-speed range (see chapter 6).

Speed endurance

The issue of speed endurance can be viewed from two different perspectives. Speed endurance can be understood as an ability to maintain high movement speed for a time period exceeding 15 s, for example in running disciplines in athletics (200-meter and 400-meter running) when the athlete is trained for performance in a single run (qualifying, finals) which is followed by a sufficient rest period; or it is possible to be understood as an ability to repeatedly produce high movement speed with minimum rest intervals between individual repetitions. This model appears for example in ice hockey, florball etc., when the player must be able to repeatedly produce maximum performance during the whole course of the game. Load interval (time spent in the pitch) and rest interval (time spent on substitutes bench) then follow from practical requirements of the specific sport. An appropriate method to develop this tupe of endurance is represented by interval methods. An example of interval methods for developing speed endurance according to the creterion of load duration follows:

Speed endurance

Load interval:6-20s(20s-2mins)

Rest inteval:1:4(1:3)

Load intensity:maximal(maximal)

Way of rest:active(active)

The presented parameters are only of informative nature; in practice, it is necessary to watch for the moment of decreasing maximal intensity of performing the motor activity. As soon as there is a decrease in intensity, it is necessary to end this type of load. Duration of rest interval is also informative; it depends on immediate level of training. It is good to watch for the decrease in heart rate. The next load interval can start once the value has decreased to 120-130 b.p.m.

Developing Reaction Speed

In sports, reaction speed is manifested in different situations (e.g. the reaction of a sprinter to start-up shot, the reaction of a goalkeeper in football to direct free kick, the reaction of the coxwain to a sudden gust of wind in yachting etc.). The speed of reaction is determined by the time (latency period) which lasts from the stimulus to initiating a motor response by skeletal muscles. In sports, there are reactions to simple stimuli when the athlete knows the form of the stimulus exactly in advance (start-up shot at 100-meter run) and on the other hand, ther eis reaction to selective stimuli when the athlete expects one of possible forms of the stimulus (reaction to direct free kick in football, selecting the direction of movement of the central blocker in volleyball depending on the direction of the pass). A goalkeeper expects the ball to head for the goal but does not know to which part of the goal the ball is heading. Stimuli can be divided according to receptor involved into accoustic (start-up signal), visual (flight of a ball) and tactile (gust of wind through the sheets). Training reaction speed draws from simulating specific raction situations of a specific sports discipline. To train reaction speed, the athlete must be fully concentrated on the task being performed and he or she must not be tired.

Methods of developing reaction speed

Repetition method

The core of this method is repeated reactions to a given stimulus (e.g. reaction to start-up signal in swimming).

Sensoric method

The method broadens repetition method. The athlete attempts to subectively assess the duration of performing the reaction to a given stimulus.

Method of reaction to selective stimulus

A proper reaction to selective stimuli in sports games and resistance sports is often related to game experience and anticipation. An example of this is the reaction of the volleyball libero to the type of attack hit. Based on his or her experience, the player is able to anticipate the type and direction of intended attack following the clues provided by the movements of the opponent’s body. On the basis of his or her assumption, the player chooses the place of defense in field. A similar example can be found in resistance sports. A judo player attempts to anticipate the type and speed of the opponent’s entrance. The core of this method is to teach one’s trainees to gradually anticipate the opponent’s aim, thus gaining the most advantageous position for a reaction to difficult stimulus.

Basic Principles of Speed Development

• The organism must not be tired.
• The athlete must be in a good mood and must be self-motivated to train speed.
• Speed training must be preceded by good stretching.
• All exercises must be carried out with maximum intensity.
• The technique of applied exercises must be perfectly mastered.
• Speed exercises must be placed at the beginning of a training session.

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Coordination ability means an ability to quickly and purposefully perform difficult spatio-temporal movement structures. Within this context, coordination abilities  are understood as an externally visible manifestation of the control and regulation processes of the motor activity of the central nervous system. The complex of coordination abilities consists of a group of basic coordination abilities.

Basic coordination abilities:

Adaptive ability enables modifications of motor activity ob the basis of comparison or anticipation of new or changing conditions during performing motor activity.

Balance ability is understood as an ability to keep body or its parts in a relatively stable position.

Combinatory ability is understood as an ability to simultaneously put partial movements together into more complex movement structures.

Kinesthetic diferentiation ability means an ability to realize kinematic and dynamic features of movement.

Orientation ability is an ability to realize position of the body or its parts in space and time.

Rhytm ability enables to grasp and motorircally express rhythm which which is externally determined or contained in the motor activity itself.

Coordination abilities and affecting them are of twofold importance in sports:

• their higher levels are a value in itself (a “skillful” individual is capable of better reactions to the need of changing the movement, its variability, speed or the speed with which the movement is performed)
• developing them is a precondition for the quality of technical preparation (a good level of coordination abilities enables faster and better acquiring of sports skills)

The difference between technical preparation and development of coordination abilities:

• technical preparation aims at perfection, technical mastery of a limited number of required motor skills, their automation and stability control
• stimulating coordination abilities consists in being introduced to many motor activities, whereas perfect mastery is not the aim, the aim being only a certain degree of automation

Sensitive period for developing coordination is between 5 and 6 years of age (qualitative features grow: economy, fluency, precision) and around the age of 12; the highest values of agility indicators can be reached between 17 and 20 years of age.

Developing coordination abilities includes:

• broadening motor experience (e.g. headstand or beating a rhythm with the right hand),
• further, on the basis of already acquired motor experience, creating new original movement structure through the process of putting together mastered movements into more complex units (e.g. handstand, beating a different rhythm with the right and left hands)
• performing movements in new changed conditions which require new creative problem solution (e.g. a sequence of handstand – forward roll or beating a changing rhythm with the right and left hands)

Specialized training negatively affects development of new movements (due to focusing on a limited number of motor skills which are the contents on selected sports specialization.

Principles and Procedures in Training Coordination Abilities

More demanding coordinatio exercises (activities requiring the activity of a bigger number of muscles, various movemets of both the body and limbs, moves in different directions and along different axles) are used for coordinatio abilities development. Mastered exercises are performed under chaning conditions because automated skills do not lead to further development of coordination abilities.

A variation can be reached by:

• faster or slower performance
• change of rhythm  
• making the work-out space smaller
• limitig or eliminating visual control
• making the ground of support smaller
• exercising “under pressure” (in limited time)
• asymmetric movements
• mirror movements

Further:

• mastered skills are combined and connected
• full concentration, precision and  rhythm are focused on
• the contents of motor activity and its difficulty is stressed and dominant 
• fewer repetitions are used (reason: fatique decreases efficiency of stimulation)
• they are scheduled for the beginning of a training session

Selecting exercises

The wider the motor contents of a sports discipline is and the more complicated and faster locomotioin is (relocating in space) and the more difficult, faster and complex manipulation with tools or devices is (movemets of upper limbs), the bigger the requirements for coordination are.

Selecting exercises in practice:

• acrobatic exercises (rolls, take-offs, skips, linked exercises)
• exercises with apparatus (rotation exercises, shapes)
• exercises with tools (skipping ropes, balls, cones, coordination ladder, bosu )
• stride variantions
• exercises related to overcoming hurdles (slalom tracks, hurdle tracks)
• minor resistance excercises

Page 5

Flexibility means to reach required or maximum joint rangle through muscle contraction or through the action of external forces. Each sports discipline requires a certain rangle of flexibility necessary for optimum performance of motor skills. Gymnasts need much bigger rangle of flexibility of hip joint than football players. Similarly, there are differences in flexibility ranges with an individual athlete in different joints or in the same joints of pair organs.  The main factors which affect flexibility include:

• Physique of joints (the shape of the joint, muscle hypertrophy, the lay-out of muscle tissue, the type of muscles).
• Sufficient strength of muscles performing the movement in the point.
• Motor control (the cooperation of agonists, antagonists and sunergists).
• Individual condition of the athlete (age, sex, psychical condition, health condition, fatique).
• External conditions (temperature of the surroundings, time of the day, the quality of stretching).

A basic precondition necessary for flexibility development is relaxed muscle. Relaxation means the opposit of muscle contraction, i. e. “inactivity” of the muscle caused by a cease in the Central Nervous System. Muscle contraction is caused by a neural impulse towards muscle fibre. The neural impulse releases calcium ions present in the muscle. If adenosintriphosphate (ATP), which represents fuel for skeletal muscles, is present, calcium ions bind with actin and myosine and form electrostatic bond. The formed bond can be compared to two counter-polarized magnets which pull on each other. As a consequence of such a bond, actin fibers are being dragged in between myosine fibers and the muscle fiber is shortened while tension in the muscle appears. The result of this process is muscle contraction. If muscle fibers do not receive any neural impulses, the muscle fibre stretches and tension decreases. An example of this is extension in the knee joint when during contraction of quadriceps femoris, hamstrings relax.

In skeletal muscles, there are two kinds of proprioreceptors (Golgi tendon bodies and muscle spindles) which provide information to the Central Nervous System on changing length of a muscle. Golgi bodies monitor all tension stages of muscle tension; however, they best perceive the tension caused by muscle contratio. Muscle spindles have two types of neural receptors. Primary receptors react to both dynamic and tonic stretching. Secondary neural receptors reacto only to tonic stretching. The reaction is determined by the length and speed of muscle stretching (e.g. in swing stretching). Tonic response is determined only by the length of the muscle (e.g. in static stretching).

Factors limiting muscle stretching

Stretch reflex is the basic function of nervous system; it maintains muscle stretching and reacts to sudden, unexpected muscle stretch. This relfex is a protection from injuries caused by dangerous muscle stretching. A typical example of this is patellar reflex: if patella is knocked on, muscle spindles, which are parallel to muscle fibers, are stretched, which results in stimulation of neural receptors. The consequence of this is neural impulse into quadriceps femoris which shortens. However, this reflex presents a problem for targeted stretching. Cease of stretch reflex presents a necessary precondition for stretching the muscle.

Factor supporting muscle stretching

Reciprocal inervation is enabled by synchronous control of muscle activity by the Central Nervous System. Muscles usually work in pairs; when one is shortened (biceps brachii), the other must be prolonged (triceps brachii) and vice versa. If there appears inervation and subsequent muscle contraction of one muscle, the other muscle is automatically relaxed. This phenomenon is used to achieve relaxation in muscles which we want to stretch. An example: if we want to stretch hamstrings, it is necessary to contract quadriceps femoris in the position of modifiable hurdle sitthing. Reciprocal inervation causes hamstring relaxation.

Myotatic inverse reflex is related to the protective function of Golgi bodies. If the intensity of muscle stretch exceeds critical limit, a reflex which ceases muscle stretch appear immediately, which causes immediate relaxation of the muscle and decrease in excessive stretch. Relaxation is a protection mechanism which prevents from tendon and muscle injuries which could otherwise appear in the form of their being torn off tentacles.

Flexibility development is based on intentional supression of factors which limit joint range and on introducing sitmuli which lead to maintaining or increasing the range. In practice, it is:

• necessary muscle relaxation
• stretching muscles and ligament tissue  
• regulating reflexive actitivty of the muscle  
• strengthening antagonists
• elimination muscle imbalance

There are several approaches to flexibility classification. In sports practice, static and dynamic flexibility is distunguished. Static flexibility is characterized by achieving maximum current movement rangle by slow movement. Dynamic flexibility is characteristic in repeated achieving maximum rangle by standard or increased speed. From the point of view of the causes of movement, we can differentiate active flexibility when limits are reached by active muscle contraction (concentric muschle contraction of quadriceps femori causes hamstring stretching). The movement range of passive flexibility is determined by actions of external forces (e.g. gravity action or with the help of a partner).

Training flexibility

Requirements for optimum level of flexibility spring from a specific sports discipline. Joint range must be on a level sufficient for allowing the athlete to strive for optimum performance of sports skills. A necessary precondition to increase joint range is a relaxed muscle. The sense of relaxing muscles is to regulate their reflexive activity and thus, relax its stretching prior to futher stretching as much as possible. Stretching muscles without sufficient stretching is not efficient. A further step is applying stretching exercises. A certain level of force plays an important part in the process of flexibility development. It is important for achieving limits in an active way. It is also as important to maintain muscle balance. In some sports disciplines, one-sided load prevails (tennis, volleyball, floorball), which may lead to violating balance. Muscle imbalance appears when there is imbalance between agonists and antagonists. As a rule, one of the muscles is shortened and the other one weakened. An example of this can be the shortening of pectoral muscles and weakening of scapula muscles in volleyball players. As a consequence, shoulders move forward, which causes insufficient movement range at reception outside body axis in volleyball. Another example of muscle imbalance appears in pair limbs in tennis players when the joint range (e.g. in external shoulder rotation) is bigger in the strike arm. A complex training of flexibility includes joint range development, strengthening agonists and antagonists and eliminating muscle imbalance. This process uses the combinations of:

• Relaxation exercises
• Stretching exercises
• Strengthening exercises

Relaxation exercises

The aim of relaxation exercises is to decrease the tension in the muscle before it is subsequently stretched. The basis is movements in individual segments of the body such as flickering, shaking, swinging or rotating with an emphasis on decreasing tension as much as possible. A suitable position for performing relaxation exercises is lying on the back or side, often with the help of a partner. Individual movements are performed in 15-30 repetitions. The aim of relaxation exercises is decreased tension in skeletal muscle before its stretching.

Stretching exercises

Stretching is a name of the process of controlled stretching of skeletal muscles and ligament structures. Three basic stretching techniques can be distinguished:

• Static
• Dynamic
• Proprioreceptive stretching

Static stretching represents a method of slow, intentional muscle stretching, which means stretching the muscle to the limit position and maintain it. Muscles must be warm, well perfused and relaxed. An example of this can be static hamstring stretching.

There are 3 stages:

• initial mild stretching up to a light tension (a warm feeling in muscle tissue, no pain), hold for 10-30 s  
• developing stretching which follows after 2-3s relaxation at the end of the preceding stage, the aim is to further increase movement range; it must be performed following the same criteria the preceding stage (hold for 10-30s)
• drastic stretching which is accompanied by unremitting pain in the muscle. There is a risk of a damage to the muscle
• the exercise can be repeated up to 3 times  

This method is considered very saving and safe. The main advantages include:

• it is easy to learn
• it provides enough time to “shift” the limit of activating stretch reflex
• it does not require much energy investment
• with training of sufficient intensity, it can cause muscle relaxation through impulses from Golgi tendon bodies

Dynamic stretching uses motor energy of the parts of the body to multiple fast or short muscle contraction which is stopped in limit position. Multiple repetitions (15-30 times).

Proprioreceptive stretching

One of the methods presents stretching the muscle after its preceding contract-relax.  

Basis: muscle tension increased with resistance enables subsequent bigger passive stretching.  

Procedure:

• the muscle is stretched passively below pain limit  
• in this position, static contraction against external resistance is performed (4-6 s) 
• relaxation after resistance (relaxation) – infaltion – exhalation (2-3 s)  
• passive stretching to limit positions (10-30 s)

The effect of stretching

• “Shifting” the critical point for activating stretch reflex.
• Regular and long-term stretching leads to an increase in the number of sarcomeres.
• Regular and long-term stretching leads to a change in the length of ligaments surrounds muscles (epimysium, endomysium, perimysium).

Basic principles of flexibility development

• Warm-up and stretch properly.
• Combine relaxation, stretching and strengthening exercises with the weight of one’s own body.
• Perform stretching slowly up to the point of feeling slight tension.
• Never exceed pain threshold.
• Not always is it possible to reach maximum position.
• Concentrate on stretched area and do not forget about regular breathing.
• Stretch less flexible part of the body first.
• In static exercises, hold in limit positions up to 60 seconds.
• A complex of 8-12 exercises for different joints within one training block.    
• Stretch back less intensively but more frequently.  

Page 6

The aim of technical preparation is to create and improve sports skills. Each sports skill has a given way of solving a motor task (contents of a sports skill) in accordance with the rules of a given sport, biomechanical rules and locomotive possibilities of the athlete which are referred to as technique. Specific individual adjustment of technique by an athlete is referred to as style.

Procedure of acquiring motor skills:

1. Sports skills are created on the basis of information on external and internal environment of the athlete and their synthesis into a complex image about the situation (skill) to be solved.
2. Creating such image is carried out on the basis of information acquired from senses (visual, audio, locomototive and positional) – perception.
3. By repeating, perceived situations are gradually being fixed into corresponding perception patterns.
4. Through afferent pathways, files with such information are transfered to CNS where they are further analysed in programming processes.
5. It is here that the neural basis of relevant program is formed.
6. The program is stored in the relevant memory.
7. Selected solution program is implemented by relevant structures of neural impulses which evoke relevant activities within skeletal muscles.
8. Gradually, structures of conditioned reflexes (movement stereotypes) in the form of motor patters are created.
9. By repetition, these patterns are being formed into independent neuro-physiological units (perception patters, programs of motor solutions).
10. To a certain extent, they are independent and can be combined into new units.

Stages of Technical Preparation

The process of learning motor skills is based on theoretical findings on motor learning.

Accomplishing the aim is conditioned by:

• understanding the technique as a unity of its internal and external features
• step-by-step procedure of its acquiring
• stabilizing the technique
• comprehensive conception (contents organization)
• conscious activity of both the athlete and coach

The process of learning is not linear and even; it is a long-term process unlimited by time.

In practice, the following stages appear:

• drill
• improving
• stabilization

Drill

Tasks:

• learning the objectives of selected sports discipline
• drilling the techical basics of relevant sports skills

This stage proceeds in the follow axis:

• introduction (rules, feeling the water, ball etc.)
• defining the task (couch’s input, athlete must identify him/herself with the image)
• creating image
• initial attempts (verifying the image under simplified conditions), repeating („repeating without repetitions“)

Improving

Tasks:

• firming, improving and subsequent adjusting techniques in given specialization
• gradual interconnection of technique and fitness requirements and physiological functions of the athlete
• focussing the stage aims at further shaping the image

All information is integrated in a single unit of complex locomotive analyzer which is sport specific. Firming and improving is carried out through sophisticated repetitions of relevant exercises which lead towards automation. This stage continues to improve mainly kinematic (time and space) and dymanic (strength) parameters of motion structures. Techique should be gradually interconnected with its fitness basis and energy supply.

The main aim of this stage of technical preparation is final technique firming and stabilization.

Stabilization

Tasks:

• firming and stabilization of sports skills complexes as units which are ready to be involved in programs for competitve activities of the athlete
• mutual interconnection, combination and adjustments of these units to most demanding conditions under which sports activity is employed
• attempts to firm and stabilize lead to another, more in-depth, uniting of technique, fitness, psyche and tactics into highly functional units

The substance of stabilizing technique in this stage lies in automation of relevant structures and actions of skills structures and their continuous adjusting to competition conditions.

Methods of Technical Preparation:

• Methods: analytic, analytic-synthetic, concentration, dispersion.
• Procedures: whole, from whole to part, from part to whole.

Tactical Preparation

It is necessary to differentiate between two terms:

• strategy is understood as a pre-prepared plan of actions in a specific competition
• the plan is defined by key strategy points (points in competition when the athlete makes decisions according to given strategy in so-called conflicting situations)
• tactics further analyzes and shows possible solutions of individual competition situations (conflicting situations)
• focuses on practical implementation of these situations within given plan (strategy)
• tactics (individual, group, team, offensive, defensive)

Implementing tactical actions is carried out on the following axis:

• perception and analysis (situation occurence – situation recognition – situation analysis)
• mental solution (solution proposal – soluction selection)
• movement solution (solution execution, feedback)

Tactics is being solved within competition situations which are characterized by conditions.

We can differentiate between two types of conditions:

• fixed (sports ground, sports area, equipment etc.)
• changing (referee, audience, route, ball bounce etc.)

Drilling Tactical Skills

Tactical skills are understood as certain procedures or models of competition situations solutions acquired by training.

Acquiring tactical skills presupposes influencing the athlete’s:

• perception (space, rhythm, objects)
• thinking and decision-making (analysis, synthesis, generalization, intuitive solutions – solutions outside the scope of perception)
• knowledge (rules, organization of  sports combat conduct, principles of tactical actions in specific situations, knowledge of strategy)
• experience (memory, anticipation)

Principles of drilling tactical skills:

• tactical skills are closely related to technique
• there is a certain specific solution for each competition situation
• theoretical background (algorithms, patterns) must be acquired before drilling itself
• suggest solution to a situation when drilling and perhaps let athletes to discuss it
• at first, teach without pushing, increase resistence and pressure (time, space, fatigue) after they handle individual parts
• group skills (power play patterns) must be practised in an analytic way (in pairs or groups of three)
• it is preferable to handle solving smaller number of situations with better quality
• adjusting situation to expected competition conditions

Solving competition situations

When creating strategy plan, pay attention to the following:

• competition aim,
• competitor power
• competitor strategy
• own power
• information on environment and conditions

Solving practical situations is based on the level of preparation during training and the extent of their indefiniteness (i.e. they cannot be prepared in advance)

We differentiate among:

• Algorithmization (standard situations I.) the athlete chooses from several pre-peraded solutions (A, B, C options). Medium indefiniteness.
• Patterns (standard situations II.) everyone knows what to do in  a given situation, both me and other team-mates (e.g. direct free kick, ofensive combination, service in volleyball. Minimum indefiniteness.
• Instant unprepared solution is improvised. Creativity is of very high importance. High indefiniteness.

Psychological Preparation

The aim of psychological preparation is to make use of psychological findings to increase efficiency of other sports training components and, within competition, fix efficiency at the level equal to acquired training level. In other words, it attempts to minimize effects of negative mental influences and at the same time positively influences the athletes’ psyche in order to reach high sports efficiency.

The approach of psychological preparation deals with:

• model training
• regulation of current mental states
• regulation of interpersonal relationships
• influencing the personality of an athlete

Model Training

The starting point of model training is theoretical knowledge of adaptation process from the point of view of psychology. Adaptation stimuli are represented by situational influences which negatively influence the athlete’s activity with their psychogenic effects.

What follows is that it is necessary to include competition situations “models” into training. Coach is required to be inventive, creative, like an actor or director, and able to convicingly influence his trainees who on the other hand must cooperate during model training by accepting the rules of the model. An example of model training can be repeated finish of set endings in volleyball under mental pressure when the score is unfavourable.

Regulation of Current Mental States

Current mental states can be divided into pre-start, competition and post-competition.

Pre-start states – they appear when the athlete realizes he/she participates in an important competition. These states gradually melt into in-competition states.

Post-competition states – the are evoked by subjective assessment of the course of competition and can last for several hours. The starting point for regulating such states are findings on activation level of athletes (see Chapter 3).

According to level of activation and its direction:

• too high level of activation (start fever) – negative (aversive jitters), positive (eager jitters)
• low level of activation (start apathy, indifference, apathy)

Post-competition states origin from success or failure. Failure causes depression, neurotic manifestations, resignation, hopelessness.

Means of regulations can be divided into for groups following their aim:

• lowering activation
• increasing activation
• lowering negative experience of failure
• removing psychological effects of fatigue

Particular means selection is a specific, to a certain extent individual matter.

Regulation of Interpersonal Relationships

In a sports team, there are two basic types of relationships among athletes: competition and cooperation. Both of these must be present in the team in an optimum degree. If competition overwhelms cooperation, there is rivalry in the team which affects cooperation (the trouble of several individualities). High level of cooperation without competition usually leads to general benevolence which results in missing motivation.

Page 7

Anyone who performed some sport actively can certainly remember their beginnings and their first coaches. For a child who starts to attend some children sports club at an early age, the figure of the coach means authority. Coaches working with beginning athletes usually determine whether sport shall become part of their entire lives or not. Therefore, the approach and knowledge of the coach is of utmost importance. In children sports training, the coach is faced with many difficulties which he or she must be aware of. The most important difficulties are as follows:

Not every top athlete can be a high-quality coach of children. In common practice of sports clubs, youth coaches are recruited among the top athetes of the club. Such coaches start training children without any practical experience and often also without required coach license. Not everyone is able to face this situation because experience which they have acquired during their active career need not (and often they do not) work with children.

Not every active parent can be a good-quality coach of children. Frequently, coaches of children are recruited among parents. In good faith, they may make crucial mistakes in the training process, often in the area of technical and fitness training.

Ambitious coach. This type of coach is too much focused on immediate performance without respecting the age of the children. This approach suits the training conception of early specialization.

Negative relationshipt coach-child as an athlete. Affection and unfortunately aversion as well are manifested in any relationship. More often than not, it happens that the coach prefers some of his or her trainees on the basis of his or her affection. Children who are being disadvantages in this manner can be subject to frustration and consequently lose any interest in the specific sport.

Parent as a sponsor not only in team sports. Financial aids from parents is perfectly alright. However, coaches cannot be under pressure of such parents-sponsors who can feel that they have thus for example “ensured” that their children will remain in the basic team forever.

Child as an instrument to make parents’ dreams and desires come true. It is a very frequent phenomenon in training practice. Parents often have the feeling that their offspring should achieve what they themselves never have. This phenomenon is more often manifested in individuale sports such as tennis. The parents’ participating in the competition can then present a crucial stressor for their children.

The above difficulties may occur as early as in the first stage of sports traiing (the stage of being introduced to the sport). Various other negative phenomena occur in sports where the top level is reached in young age, e.g. in gymnastics, figure skating etc.

In children sports training, the coach should tak care to complete the following three priorities:

1. Not to harm children physically or psychically. At present, children suffer from specific troubles such as scoliosis, fatique fractures, premature bone ossification etc. due to excessive and unbalanced training load. Likewise, depression or long-term states of frustration may lead to psychic diseases.

2. To create a relationship of the children to sport as a whole-life activity. It is not possible for all children to reach the top level. The coach must attempt to make active sporting a whole-life companion for his trainees.

3. To create stable foundations for the training in the next age category. Sports training must be focused on managing basic constructions which are necessary for a competition to be carried out. It means teaching children technique, basic rules, basic standards of behavior, tactical procedures necessary to carry out the game; all this in compliance with respective development of motor skills.

Characteristics of the age period between 6 and 18 in children and youth

The division of the age categories is only informational as individual ontogenetic development plays a significant part. Nevertheless, the overview provides a basic insight into the issue of sports preparation.

Younger school age (6-11 years)

• skeleton has not been developed (spine curving), it is necessary to get used to correct body posture
• learning and thinking is focused on individual items, connections are not paid attention to
• personality features are not stable yet, impulsivenes is dominant
• will has not been developed (concentration for maximum of 5 mins)
• the child has mastered basic motor activities (crawling, running, jumping, simple throwing)
• a period sensitive to developing coordination and partial speed
• there are no differences between boys and girls
• the motive of competitivness must be dominant
• game principle prevails in training process
• principle: gradually take children from spontaneous movement to systematic sports preparation includem standards and behavior in sports
• an important point – the example of the coach
• negative assessment from the coach is not suitable

Older school age (11-15 years)

• uneven biological changes (puberty)
• growth is faster as a result of hormones
• increase in sex hormones increases muscle strength significantly, however, tendons, ligaments and tentacles are not yet ready for it
• a feature: motor clumsiness – temporal lost of coordination due to fast growth (13-14 years of age)
• development of logical and abstract thinking
• significant development of emotions
• performance increases naturally
• differences between boys and girls start to be manifested
• bone ossification has still not been completed; this limits efficiency
• a period sensitive to speed development
• endurance development maily through methods of uninterrupted load of low intensity and logner duration
• a highly tactful approach of the coach (the reason being psychic changes in puberty)

Youth age (15-18 years)

• towards the end of this period, physical development of all body organs is slowly completed (heart, lungs, muscles, strengthening bones and tendons)
• full capability of logical thinking, using abstract thinking
• from the age of 16 on, it is possible to increase training requirements more significantly
• the possibility to include anaerobic activities in a greater scope
• the possibility to include systematic strength preparation
• improving detailed technical preparation goes on
• the proportion of tactical preparation increases
• the necessity to regulate psychic conditions of the athletes

The above differentiation is based on calendar year which is only informational and does not inlcude individual speed of ontogenetic changes. Such changes are reflected in biological age. Acceleration means ontogenetic development which is faster than standard. Retardation means the opposite, i.e. ontogenetic development which is slower than standard. Basic methods of determining biological age include:

• Comparing body height and weight with standards.
• Telling the level of bone ossification.
• Telling the level of the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Sports age is a period during which the athlete is subject to systematic sports preparation. It may be the case that a younger athlete with longer training practice can master sports skills better than much older sportsman.

While creating the conception of sports training, it is necessary to realize that it is a long-term development of performance of each athlete from childhood until adulthood. The contents of the training process must therefore respect biological maturity whereas the biggest performance can be reached only by an athlete who acquired the basis of top performance as early as in childhood and youth. Usually, three kinds of age are differentiated in sports: calendar, biological and sports. Both coaches and athetes must respect all three of them. In this respect, there are two conceptions whic hcan lead to a certain maximum individual efficiency.

• The conception of early specialization.
• The concpetion of training following the age.

Conception of children sports training

Sports training always focuses on characteristic skills for the given sport. The basic difference between the two discussed conceptions is to what extent specific and general stimuli, means and methods contained in the training proces are applied. During the initial years of training, the main aim is not big performance but learning a wide background of motor skills, not only specific movements in the area of the given sport.

Conception of early specialization

This way, a young athlete can reach relatively maximal performance sooner. However, specific load is always a one-sided movement involving the same muscles all the time and there is a danger of muscle imbalance as well as various damages and injuries. Unfinished biological maturing presents a higher probability of health problems. Training specialization is always characteristic in big share of typical (specialized) training means, methods and forms for the given sport. A number of researches on early specialization result in the following:

• An athlete who specializes early proves a steep rise in performance, maximal performance is reached faster.
• High performance during childhood and youth is connected to lower performance after 18 or 19 years of age.
• Athletes who specialized soon have a shorter period of top performance.
• Absolute values of performance (world record) are slightly more often reached by athletes who were subject to a trainingh appropriate for their age.

Still, some kinds of sports (e.g. technical-aesthetic etc.) require early specialization because top performance in these sports is reached prior to the age of 20. A typical example is sports gymnastics where mainly in women, top performances are often reached in childhood – at the ages betwen 14 and 16. Top level sports gymansts of a higher age (over 25) are rather an exception.

Conception of training respective of age

Training respective of the age of a child or youth is interpreted as process respecting their physical and psychical maturity; this process is appropriate for most sports. The advantage of this concept is preventing young organism from damage as well as natural sports development. This concept allows keeping top performance for many years during adulthood. The sports life of every athlete must be divided into several stages which are in concordance with their physical and psychic state, maturity, performance development, stages of skill learning etc. We usually divide the sports life of an athlete into four stages:

• Stage of Introductory Sports Pre-Training
• Stage of Basic training
• Stage of Specific training
• Stage of Top training

Stage of Introductory Sports Pre-Training

The main aim is to gain the children for sport and the most important tasks should contribute to their proper physical and psychic development. This stage usually lasts between 1 and 3 years. The prevailing training means and exercises are general, which can help to develop mainly coordinative abilities since the most important task is to teach children as many movement skills as possible. The intensity should be low and volume should be increasing during years of regular training. In this stage, the most effective training means is game.

Stage of Basic training

The main aim is to create permanent positive attitude of children to sport and accepting sport as a part of life style. This stage has to complete several tasks: harmonic development of children and youth, strenghtening health, supporting natural physical and psychic development. Good performance is not a priority and accent is given to further development of coordinative abilities, speed and movement dynamics. The load should be mainly universal and specific load has to be aimed practicing basic technique (children technique) of skills in the given sport. The rate of specific and general training is about 20:80 per cent at the age of 11/12, and 50:50 per cent at the age of 14/15. This stage usually lasts for 2 or 4 years. The age of children going through this stage can vary, however, for most sports; it is usually during older school age. E.g. technical–aesthetic sports (gymnastics, figure skating) start very early (about the age of 5/6), endurance sports can start systematic training later, about the age of 13/14.

Stage of Specific training

The first stage is a transition from basic to specific training. High performance is still a prospective aim, and the competition is not only the criterion of performance but the means of improving performance. The load of training process is increasing (both in volume and intensity). The technical skills are continuously fixed with the help of specific exercises and means, under high load and also with increasing fatigue or in different competition conditions etc. Motor abilities start to develop with respect to the need of specific fitness (specific strength, endurance, velocity).

This stage is typical of every sport and lasts for 2 or 4 years. For most sports, this stage stretches over the category of youth, from 14 (15) to 18(19) years of age. However, in gymnastics, it is approximately between 8 and 12 years (girls). Athletes should understand that their training process is a systematic activity and a meaningful part of their lives.

Stage of Top training

The main aim is to achieve maximal performance and keep it for long time. This stage tops off the long-term training process and it is meant for talented athletes only. Adulthood allows maximal volume and quality of trainings load. In most sports, this stage starts after reaching 19 years of age but in some (technical-aesthetic) sports, the athlete can reach maximal performance early (14 – 18 years). Training volume is very high, 300 – 330 days per year, 700 – 1,500 hour of load. Training process should be adjusted to individual differences among athletes but with maximum focus on specific load, approximately 10-20% of general load and 80-90% of specific load.

The main tasks are: to reach maximal level of technical skills and movement economy, to achieve very high level of tactical abilities, to achieve maximal level of training (strength, endurance, speed etc.).

Specific development of motor abilitities in children training

Logical procedure of developing individual motor abilities is based on the development rules. During life, there are periods which are suitable for developing specific motor abilities – sensitive periods. If coaches make use of such periods, they can form a very good background for future sports life of their athletes. An overview of sensitive periods and specific differences in children training:

Speed abilities

Boys7-14 years of age
Girls7-14 years of age

• It is recommended to develop them together with agility.
• Load interval of 10 seconds.
• Rest interval 1:6.
• In the form of hurdle tracks, fan runs etc.

Endurance abilities

Aerobic endurance whenever

Anearobic endurance from 14-15 years of age on

• In younger school age, hard endurance training does not lead to increase in aerobic performance.
• Until the age of 10, there is no need for special endurance training.
• Endurance training only in adolescence makes sense.
• There is enough time to train anaerobic endurance later.

Strength abilities

Boys13-15 years of age
Girls10-13 years of age

Period till 10 years of age

• The skeleton and muscles are not yet ready for strength development.
• Speed-agility exercise supports strength development themselves.
• The principle of natural muscle strengthening (making use of natural movements, see below).
• All exercise in the form of a game.
• High variability of exercise.
• Means: climbing, wall bar climbing, parallel bars dips, differents hangs, resistance exercises, rope pulling, pushing, exercises with heavy ball (1kg) rolling, carrying etc..

Period between 10 and 12 years of age

• The body is still not prepared yet.
• Focus training on the area of short-time strength exercise.
• Focus on centricity of muscle development, not only on the muscle areas crucial for the specific sports discipline.
• Appropriate method – strength input (including approx. 5-minute units of strength exercise in a different training activity).
• The means now include other exercises, mainly those which make use of the weight of one’s own body: push-ups, squats, sit-ups, exercise with tools (parallel bars push-ups, pull-ups).

Period between 13 and 15 years of age

Period of systematic strength development

The effectivity of individual muscles incereases due to the influence of sex and growth hormons.

Focusing on three basic areas:

1. Training strengthening technique

In exercises which focus on handling the axis of a free weight

1. General strength training

It is based on methods and means used in previous periods of strength training. Usually in the form of circle procedure. The means mentioned above are made use of together with expanders, light weights etc.

Applying special methods of strength training (e.g. speed method, effort repetition etc.).

Coordination abilities

Boysuntil 12 years of age
Girls7-11 years of age

The training of coordination abilitites has been dealt with in Chapter 9. 

Page 8

The way to controlled training process and meaningful planning of training was long, starting with the first of attempts and errors, leading to scientific based planning which has started to develop during the 19th Century.

Developing or training physical abilities has existed, though in a basic form at first, since the ancient times; it was used for Olympic Games preparation or for military purposes. First systematic principles in training were probably used by the Greek athlete Milon who implemented the principle of systematic planning as early as in the 6th Century BC. He determined the training cycle by carrying a bull calf on his back each day until the animal reached maturity. Since the mid-19th century studies on human muscular performance have been appearing and these scientific results were published in the then popular Philosophical Magazine. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, first studies on human fatigue during work and exercise appeared. Modern scientific theories from the mid of 20th century formed the basis of training planning – periodization. It was introduced to training practice in the 1950s and early 1960s when coaches realized that focusing on an important competition was more effective than preparing athletes for a year-round competition programme as the athletes are not able to withstand the enormous training load to which they were subjects. The roots and idea of periodization come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the General Adaptation Syndrome which was first used by the athletic community in the late 1950s. Selye identified sources of biological stress and referred to them as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, and as distress, which is stress that can lead to damage, disease, and necrosis of tissue.

Periodization is an organized approach to training which involves progressive cycling of various aspects of a training program during a specific period of time. It can be defined as the purposeful variation of a training programme over time, so that the competitor gets closer his or her optimum adaptive potential just before an important event. It is based on the principles of multilateral development, specialization, variety and long-term training. Out of those, the first three are necessary for optimizing physiological factors, whereas long-term planning provides the athlete during with gradual improving of physical performance in the course of time. In the periodization, the training process is distributed in time intervals, the magnitude of which may range from days to weeks, months or even years. During each of these time intervals, a particular element of performance is accented (e.g physical fitness, technique etc.) and time intervals must respect the main tasks of ATC macrocycle – performance development, stabilization or tapering. The original idea of periodization is the basis of training process planning for all age categories or performance levels.

System and conditions for good and purposeful training process planning

Periodization is a concept, not a model. It is a systematic attempt to gain control over training adaptive responses while preparing for a competition. This concept is created with the help of several key elements which we can be divided into two parts: planning macrostructure and microstructure.

Basic elements of macrostructure:

• systematic approach
• a strategy to distribute training loads in relation to competition goals
• a defined structure for progress
• an approach of building subsequent training units
• a set time frame for executing the plan
• a complex training containing all elements
• respecting the unstable nature of adaptation process
• systematic work with training variables (volume, intensity, frequency)
• choosing a method of monitoring training and assessing competition results

Basic elements of microstructure:

• competition schedule
• input training of athlete or group, with respect to the level of performance and bilological maturity
• the arrangement of training effects at optimum time, the consequence is fatique management, which eliminates stagnation, overload or overtraining
• biological rhythm of the athlete
• the variability of stimuli
• appropiateness of exercises in relation to age, performance, period etc.
• time available for training, social and economic conditions, optimizing the duration of training
• the level of motor skills and abilities of the athlete or team
• the level of the athlete’s interest, motivation and psychic characteristics

Stages of ATC – macrocycle

The aim of the macrocycle is to develop fitness, training, sports skills, tactic abilitites, psychological features, get experience and reach top performance in competition. Fitness and performance are improved during stages and cycles, therefore the process of periodization is described as outlining the macrocycle (ATC) into smaller and better manageable parts to ensure correct peaking forward to the main competition of the year. Basically, the periodization of an annual plan has four major stages: preparatory phase, pre-competition (pre-season) phase, competition (season) phase and transition (off-season) phase.

Table 18 Basic scheme of annual training plan (macrocycle)

A traditional periodization scheme plans for one peak only known as mono-cycle, focusing only on one major competition (e.g. Local Championship, National Championships, World Championship or Olympic Games). At present, many sports combine the schedule of local international competitions and use a different type of periodization. For instance, track and field has two major championships per year, indoors and outdoors, swimming has short and long course championships etc. This type of plan is called a bi-cycle. Other sports, such as wrestling, boxing, or martial arts use also a tri-cycle, or plans with multiple peaks separated by time when the athletes compete in top competitions even several times per year.

Figure 17 ATC Monocycle

Figure 18 ATC Bi-cycle

Preparatory phase

Preparatory phase is the most important part of ATC. During this stage, the athlete gains required level of fitness and technical quality for the following periods. In some kind of sports (e.g. endurance sports), it is the longest stage of annual cycle. During this stage, the training process has to ensure creating the training basis for future performance and develop preconditions for further improvement of fitness, training and performance. The principle of training during preparatory phase lies in appropriate volume and intensity of load, the kind of exercise, and including these components to the training plan at the right time and in the right rate.

Preparatory phase is of an analytic-synthetic character and may contain two or three shorter training periods. The first part is usually analytic, the training of motor abilities and technical and tactical skills is trained separately, the training mode is general and the load varies from low to medium, aiming at continuous development of performance. In the second part of this period, individual components are trained together, it is necessary to start to apply special training means; load is more intensive. The third period requires a clear shift to special training, used training means must be in accordance with actual competition movements, duration and intensity. The training methods are strictly sport-specific and large-scale exercise load (volume and intensity) is necessary for adaptation and further progress in the first transition period.

During prepeartory phase, the athlete gradually changes the rate of specific and general training means. In the first stage, general training means prevail, in the second and third stages specific training means are prevalent. At the beginning of this period, the training process is focused on volume, in the second part of the period, intensity increases.

Pre-competition phase

This period is included about 2 or 4 weeks before competitive period (season) and it should not be very long because it may result in decrease in motivation or problems with maintained reached fitness level without top competitions etc. The main task is increasing performance. Fitness training is specific, technical skills are stabilized for competition load and the variability of race movement. The main principles of training in first transition period are the following:

• Decrease in training volume
• High quality of training process
• Sufficient time for rest and recovery
• Most training exercises are specific
• Check races or competitions

Tapering training must also respect individual specifics and current health condition of the athlete.

Competitive phase

The main aim is to demonstrate the maximal level of performance. During season, the athlete usually competes in top, most important or second-level competitions. This stage is created in relationship with the dates of important competitions and can be either simple or complex. Simple competition period lasts for 2-3 months while the complex one for 4-5 months. In individual or endurance sports, this period is usually divided into two parts. The first one is reserved for developing desired performance level; the athlete usually takes part in second-level or qualification competitions (the first in-season period). During the second part, optimum hight level of performance is maintained and the athlete should reach the best results and sports shape (the second in-season period). During competition phase, sports games usually have a specific model of regular matches (1-3 matches a week).

Sports shape can be kept for about 2 or 4 weeks, therefore tapering for  sports shape should be implemented for the main race only or twice during a long race season, with some recovery periods included between the periods of sports shape. For the rest competition phase, the athlete should maintain a good level of performance. Planning training during season must respect the balance of high quality of load and sufficient time for recovery.

Transition phase

Periods of demanding motor activity must be alternated with relaxation periods. This period usually lasts betwen 2 and 6 weeks, depending on the length of pre-competition and competition phase. The frequency of training is low and training units are short.  The content of training is usually general and must support physical and psychic recovery. 

Transition period is characterized with: 

• Decrease in training load (intensity, volume, frequency).
• Training is based on general training means, however, it should be varied.
• Without competition.
• Attempt to maintain acquired level of fitness.
• Psychological recovery.

Training cycles

Early periodization models were usually based on the competitive calendar more than on adaptive processes because information regarding the latter was limited. As the knowledge about sport training theory has expanded, the training effects are based on exploiting biological principles. The rate of involution (decay) and time of maintaining the level of various training effects is a central basic building element in cyclic program design. The time of maintaining training effects is a function of the half-life of structures synthesized during adaptive tissue remodeling. As might be expected, their time courses vary. Chronically, involution is modulated by the length of the preparation period. In general, the greater the duration of a training program, the more stable its residual training effect. This allows the fitness qualities acquired during one phase to be maintained with relatively small volume-loads during the next, such that emphasis can be redirected and cumulative fatigue problems can be minimized. The most important objective of contemporary periodization is to systematically converge the cumulative or interactive effects of various means, methods, frequency of stimulus, organisation’s forms etc. The same value as a stimulus has the time of regeneration. This time is important part of adaptations processes and the time for recovery after training units of various tasks must be respected. This time is different for development of strength, endurance or velocity.

Approximate time for recovery after various types of load:

• After demanding training of maximal strength................................... 48-72 h
• After demanding and long aerobic training …...................…………. 48 h
• After easy  aerobic training …………….........................................24 h
• After demanding anaerobic-endurance training ……………............. 48 h
• After easy anaerobic-endurance training …………............……........24 h
• After demanding speed training ………………………............….......24 h
• After easy speed training ……………………………..........................12 h

Training cycles – basic components of periodization

Annual training plan – macrocycle (long-term cycle) is created from shorter time cycles: mesocycle (mid-length time period, several-week training cycle), microcycle (short-term training cycle, usually one-week training cycle) and training units. Thanks to these cycles, the coach can adjust training load, recovery and main tasks. The combination of different types of training cycles within the annual plan depends on in-season specific goals. The basic macrocycle is called annual training cycle. Mesocycle (MeC) usually lasts between 2 and 6 weeks and each macrocycle typically includes several of them. The shortest training cycle is microcycle (MiC) which usually lasts for one week (ranging from 3 to 10 days) and several MiC form a mezocycle. Training volume and intensity varies in individual cycles. The profile of each cycle depends on the competition level, age, biological maturity and on the specific demands of a given sport and ATC period.

Microcycle

Microcycle is probably the most important tool in the planning of training.  MiC is a group of several training units. MiC trainings are usually planned for one week (from Monday to Sunday). The structure and contents of the weekly microcycle are determined by the main training task of the given annual macrocycle, type of MiC, quantity, quality and the nature of the training stimulus. Variation of training volume and intensity within and between microcycles is a fundamental aspect of coaching. Table 19 presents basic types of MiC.

Table 19 Types of microcycle

Building a microcycle (Mic)

During mesocycle, each microcycle can be repeated for more times for the reason of a higher number of stimuli to increase training or performance. For each MiC, it is necessary to set task (e.g. focusing on the fitness, technical or tactical components), exact volume level, intensity and specific training methods which should be used. To complete the main target and specifics tasks of MiC, it is necessary to include two or three training units with similar focus and contents. To develop motor abilitites, training units must contain overloading stimuli (1-3 training units). Repetitions of specific stimuli is a key feature to learn technical elements or develop motor abilitites. Each MiC is usually of different load (volume, intensity).

A basic macrocycle model contains 52 MiC, each for 7 days, though the length of MiC can vary from 3 to 10 days with a different structure such as 3+1 day or training units (three days of load, one free day), 5+1 and it is also possible to use MiC with one, two or three peaks. In one day, the athlete can manage from one to three training units (TU) depeding on the training volume and intensity provided recovery is included. Depending on the age and performance level, MiC can contain between 5 and 20 training units within the respective week. Training load of the given MiC is thus determined by the combination of training volume, intensity and the length of rest. Thus, MiC must be built in such a way so as to eliminate fatique accumulation and to recover energy sources.

The following steps ensure optimum quality and quantity of training for given MiC:

• First, intensity for each day must be planned in relation to the task and load of the whole day to alternate intensity, energy systems and types of activity.
• Second, technical, tactical and physical training components must be separated and it is important to decide when and which of them will be implemented.
• Finally, more than two kinds of exercise which exploit the same energy system should not be applied.

Mesocycle (MeC)

In individual sports, a mesocycle usually represents a training block in the duration of 2-6 weeks. The duration of a mesocycle depends on the objectives and type of training used in each stage of the annual plan. From the point of view of physiology, mezocycle is used to develop or improve specific aspects of functional indicators of an athlete. The overall aim is to improve competitive performance.

The types of MeC are similar to Mic:

• Opening mezocycle is used at the beginning of macrocycle.
• Basic MeC is the main type for preseason.
• First transition MeC lasts for the whole first transition period.
• In-season MeC is the basic type for in-season.
• Recovery MeC contains a higher number of rest MiC.

A typical structure of a pre-competition phase involves from two to four microcycles; they are usually “development”,”accumulation” and recovery microcycles. During competition phase, MeC vary in length, usually they are shorter, up to three weeks. Pre-competition and competition phase include other MiC such as‘‘intensification’’, ‘‘tapering’’ or racing etc. Usual practice is to increase training load (volume) in MeC focused on endurance but decrease volume during tapering and competition microcycles. In MeC foscusing on speed development, intensity increases wheres load volume decreases. Generally, bigger volume of training process is reached at lower training intensity, and similarly, higher training intensity is reached with smaller load volume.

Experience has shown that three weeks of increasing training load represents the usual limit of positive adaptation and the human ability to tolerate graded stress without signs of overtraining and fatigue accumulation. After thre weeks, increasing fatigue starts to make the benefits of training smaller. With increasing training fitness, it is possible to implement training load in recovery periods at a higher level than it would be possible earlier, at the beginning of pre-season.

Figure 19 Some typical training schemes of different MeC types, columns show load volume

Macrocycle

Macrocycles can be composed of two, three or more mezocycles which must meet specific target(s). On the whole, when building a macrocycle, it is necessary to address the following features:

• Create a system of annual training plan based on competition schedule and set the duration for individual periods.
• The set of objectives for individual periods of annaul macrocycle and for shorter time periods.
• Set the proportion of general, special and competition training means (for macrocycle as well as for periods).
• Set the number of training units.
• Set load volume and intensity for annual macrocycle and distributing load into individual periods. 
• Consider the progress in load volume which will follow the previous macrocycle.

If necessary, arrange for desired rate of individual adjustment while using specific training methods or load during annual macrocycle.

Principles of sports training

Principles of sports training represent recomendations, instructions or standards for coaching aiming at ensuring as much training effect as possible.

Principle of the unity of versatile and specialized training

For optimum development of an athlete, an optimum proportion of versatile and specialized training is necessary which changes in individual stages of sports training. The volume of specialized training increases gradually. Premature specialization is a mistake, i.e. high increase in specialized training in a very young age, which results in quick increase in sports performance.

Principle of continuous training process

The basic precondition of increasing and maintaining acquired sports performance is systematic training activity. It is necessary to keep optimum frequency of training units which follow the principle of supercompensation. The requirement therefore is to continuously alternate load and rest while respecting individual specifics of athletes.

Principle of gradual load increasing

Load volume must respect the current training fitness of the athlete. In a long-term perspective, load must increase gradually. On a regular basis, it is not possible to increase load without any limit. During individual stages, training periods and cycles, load increases, stabilizes and subsequently decreases. In a long-term perspective, load volume is of a wave-shape character with a long-term tendency to increase load.

Principle of wave-like load process

Activity which varies in waves is typicial of the whole living nature. Therefore, the wave-like character is moc suitable even for the process of training load (its volume and intensity). In other words, it must be carried out in changes which represent waves (just like it is not possible to eat one’s favourite meal every day). From the point of view of training in order to reach maximal performance, the intensity ways falls behind the volume wave; sports shape appears only after volume has decreased.

Cycle principle

The precondition of effective adaptation changes in athete’s organism is systematic repetition of contents and means of methods and forms of sports training with the aim to gradually increase sports performance.

Variability principle

Within meeting the aims and objetives of individual training cycles, it is necessary to alternate training contents – means, methods, type, training load. In other words, it is necessary to keep the organism stressed so as to keep ti “load-sensitive”.