Project objectives state the aim of a project. Some projects have only one project objective, while others own several objectives that could be completed at various times during the project. Project objectives are a practical tool and not a motivational aid. They should be limited to the parameters of the project itself and not describing the higher mission of the organization. The objectives of a project are often written up into an objective statement. A project’s objective statement should contain all the objectives for the project. Project objectives should be written during the planning phase of a project. Writing project objectives is usually done collaboratively by the project manager, senior stakeholders, and team members who will deliver the project. Usually, the senior stakeholders will champion the corporate aims of the organization, while team members will provide their own ideas and input on their areas of specialism. It’s the project manager’s job to collate everyone’s input and write project objectives that represent the team as a whole. Project objectives need to be effective project management objectives, too. As well as defining the project’s aims, they need to fit the project management process. One framework that helps with writing effective project objectives is SMART goal-setting, which states that goals should be:
By accounting for all five components of SMART, we can write practical, effective project objectives that suit the project management process. Project objective of an app developer who is going to launch a new app: Our project team will launch our new recipe app for Android and iOS on those OS’s app stores by the start of Q2 2021. This is a great example of a measurable objective. The team will know the objective has been achieved because the attainment of the goal is linked to specific events – the launch of the app on Android and iOS’s app stores. Progress towards the objective can be linked to milestones towards the launch of the app. Project objective of a retailer opening a new branch: Our project team will fully prepare our new Buenos Aires branch for its opening on 31 September. The branch must meet our in-store customer experience specifications by 30 September. Sometimes, a project’s objectives must change during the project’s lifecycle, due to new information or situational change. Such changes should be reflected in a change to the baseline project plan. Page 2
All learners should complete the entire pretest. Evaluation of the responses will help detect weaknesses and provide criteria for selecting those categories of the module which should be completed by individual learners.
Which of the following is not an advantage of using lecture as an instructional strategy?
Lectures are economical in terms of learner time. Good lectures can provide interest and motivation to a large group of students at one time.
Which of the following statements about lecture are not true?
By lecturing, teachers can emphasize, repeat, and summarize important concepts. Lectures are economical--one teacher can reach a large number of students at the same time. Lectures allow for teacher control. Lecturing is a simple skill--easily mastered by anyone.
Choose the communication skills which improve the use of lecture as an instructional strategy.
Increase your students' vocabulary and pique their interest by
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 1, 3, 4, 5 2, 3, 5 1, 2, 3, 42, 3, 4, 5
Which of the following behaviors is not recommended for the effective lecturer?
Use a rhetorical speaking style.
A set of oral, content, or process oriented presentations.
of the following discussion types, which one emphasizes inquiry or discovery teaching where students have to become skillful askers of questions?
Which of the following discussion techniques uses a form of creative thinking?
Which of the following is true of the brainstorming techniques?
Criteria used in the selection of the demonstration method as a teaching technique are:
inexpensive, interesting, and easy to prepare. effective, involves two or more senses, and adaptable. efficient, adaptable, and used for large groups. involves two or more senses, interesting, and requires much preparation.
The key concepts and considerations necessary in preparation of a demonstration are:
topic, purpose, content, steps, apparatus, and practice. topic, purpose, evaluation, eye contact, and workmanship. content, steps, topic, workmanship, feedback, and practice. topic, audience participation, seating, steps, and purpose.
"Chatter" is a term referring to:
script used in presenting the demonstration.
If a student is to have adequate guidelines to follow in their own
used quality performance standards.
When planning for the laboratory experience, which of the following is not a necessary consideration?
The task analysis.
Which of the following best describes the use of laboratory in
Exploration of student attitudes toward work.
Learning activities in the project method are selected according to the:
occupational objectives of the student.
Experimentation is a type of laboratory used for the purpose of:
discovering inconsistencies in theories taught. verifying or discovering facts. developing affective competencies. helping students with special needs.
In order to encourage different levels of learning, questions should be varied in type. Such questions may be asked to:
A single question which elicits multiple responses.
Which of the following questions has been properly framed by the teacher?
Teacher: What are some advantages of home ownership over home renting? (pause) Paul? Teacher: Does anyone want to explain what a home mortgage is? Teacher: Jasper you've been disruptive for the last half hour. Go to the board and write out the answers to questions 1-3. Teacher: Carol, (pause) define the term, consumer. Teacher: What is the difference between a loan and revolving credit? (Pause)
Pick the response below that best describes an evaluative question.
Same as divergent questions, with the addition of judgmental criteria.
Requires the instructor to ask questions in a skillful way.
Which of the following are roles of the teacher in using the inquiry strategy?
Plans the material that stimulates an inquiry lesson. Asks questions to redirect thought.
According to John Dewey, which of the following is not part of the
Active consideration of beliefs.
Which of the following is not a characteristic of a good stimulus device?
It gives the students motivation to inquire.
Simulation can be defined as:
Reality restricted by rules.
Which rule(s) is (are) common to simulation, games, and role playing? Page 3
The role of the instructor in a simulation includes all of the following except:
Which of the following techniques allows the student to make decisions,
Instructors use the teaching method they feel most comfortable with when dealing with students. Students are trained to better understand the teaching methods of their instructors. Material is presented in the learning style favored by the student. Teaching methodologies are generally de-emphasized.
A useful guideline concerning the use of mediation is:
Mediation serves longest and best if teachers don't try to adjust or modify it. Because of the cost, media should provide more subject matter, with less stair-stepping and feedback, than other teaching methods.A filmstrip is generally preferable to a workbook. Many different teachers should be able to use the same mediated individualized unit. The selected mediation need not correspond exactly with the wording of the performance objective.
Which of the following are implementation techniques of individualized instruction?
Inservice method Task Force method Subgrouping method Learning Guide method All of the above
The student's experiences are carefully planned and supervised by the school and the employer to comply with strict legal regulations relating to an employee situation. This best describes :
Work observation. Paid work experience. Work study. Non-pay work experience. Diversified or multi-occupations.
Students are legally defined as economically disadvantaged, full time vocational students, at least fifteen (15) but less than twenty-one (21) years of age when they are involved in:
Work study. Diversified or multi-occupations. Work observation. Apprenticeship. Paid work experience.
Select the cluster of field experiences in which the work situation is used as a laboratory to practice skills learned in the classroom.
Paid work experience, non-pay work experience Cooperative Vocational Education, work study Internship, work study Paid work experience, work observation Internship, Cooperative Vocational Education
Select the cluster of field experiences in which the school has a
Cooperative Vocational Education, work study Internship, non-pay work experience Apprenticeship, Cooperative Vocational Education Work study, paid work experience Work observation, Cooperative Vocational Education
Which one of the following concepts is not consistent with accepted
An appropriate Independent Study plan for vocational education students
Independent Study should be limited to only those students who :
Strategy Decision Items (questions 41-45): Select an appropriate instructional strategy and two (2) alternative strategies for each question. Be prepared to defend your choices.
To research and report on the importance to marketing and distribution
of consumer buying habits, trends in population, income, motivation, and
other research or statistical data.
Very motivated, self-directed
The spacious D. E. classroom/laboratory is available if needed.
Town has resource persons.
Specify types of health problems which may result because of inadequate
supply of certain minerals and vitamins in the diet.
teacher: concerned about meeting the needs of individual students.
it seems like every student learns at a different speed and
each has a different learning style.
Home and Family Life education has a moderately large laboratory facility.
Reference books, single-concept films and other resources are available. , . Page 4
43. The Behavioral Objective:
Students will be able to identify common breeds of farm livestock.
an open minded individual.
interested in agriculture, but a somewhat rambunctious group.
They stay out of trouble when they're actively involved in the learning process. They already have some background on this subject, but need reinforcement and practice. The WHEN variable:
A classroom and ag shop are available.
Resources are limited--most depend on the resourcefulness of the teacher
The student can demonstrate the use of good telephone technique by:
(1) giving greeting courteously, (2) identifying location, (3) recording time
of call, caller, message, (4) repeating message to insure accuracy.
puts high priority on preparing her health occupation students
interested in various occupations in the healthcare field--few
have any practical experience.
Within the school, the class has access to a classroom and a small
Money is a problem, but resources are generally available if the cost is
within reason and the need is well documented.
The local Future Business Leaders of America group needs to raise enough
money to send one of its members, a national officer, to the national meeting
being held 2,000 miles away.
teacher: a first year B&O instructor, FBLA advisor, wants to get students
involved in the decision making process.
motivated, enthusiastic, willing to work hard.
The national meeting is six months away.
Practical consideration would probably keep the moneymaking activities
within the community, a town of 20,000.
41-45 Strictly speaking, there are no right and wrong answers to these questions. Student responses should be evalua-
Page 5
Learners should complete only those sections of the posttest that
correspond to the categories which have been completed.
Each of the following are tested principles of effective lecturing behaviors, except:
Don't be afraid to digress from the theme if you think of interesting topics as you go along. Encourage verbal participation from the learners. Use conversational style and don't try to practice rhetorical skills. Relate to the background of the learners.
Through the use of lectures, the instructor is able to:
It is one of the best strategies to encourage creative thinking by students. It matches the learning style of some students. It allows the development of problem solving skills. None of the above.
A good definition of discussion as an instructional strategy would
A verbal interchange between a speaker and a large audience.
In which of the following discussion types does the teacher act as a
Didactic group Heuristic group Task group Discursive group
Which of the following is/are necessary to have a good discussion?
Common topic or problem Goal directed Small number of students All of the above
Of the following discussion types, which one requires free and uninhibited discussion by students on a topic which they select?
Task group Didactic group Discursive group Socratic group
Criteria used in the selection of the demonstration method as a teaching technique are:
Inexpensive, interesting, and easy to prepare. Effectiveness, involves two or more senses, and adaptability. Efficiency, adaptability, and used for large groups. Involves two or more senses, interesting, and requires much preparation.
The key concepts and consideration necessary in preparation of a demonstration are:
Topic, purpose, content, steps, apparatus, and practice. Topic, purpose, evaluation, eye contact, and workmanship. Content, steps, topic, workmanship, feedback, and practice. Topic, audience participation, seating, steps, and purpose.
To aid the demonstrator in choosing a suitable topic for a demonstration in Auto Mechanics, which of the following questions is most appropriate?
What is background ability of the students?
In the evaluation of a demonstration, which of the following major areas should be measured?
The vocational education laboratory can best be described as a means of:
To discourage "cookbook" usage of written directions in the laboratory the instructor should:
Let the student formulate the directions after the exercise.
This type of laboratory experience allows the student to verify or discover facts:
16. Developing evaluation techniques for the laboratory experience should:
Be ignored because daily practice indicates learning. Be limited to only one type for objectivity.
Good questions have all of the following characteristics except:
When an instructor wants to elicit a number of different responses,
Which of the following questions has been properly framed by the
Teacher: John, I told you to quit talking. Just for that, you answer the next question. Teacher: Who can tell me the difference between vitamins and minerals? Teacher: Debbie, can you define credit buying Teacher: What are some guidelines for selecting safe toys? (Pause) Teacher: What is the difference between a guarantee and a warranty? (pause) Dorene?
A good definition of a convergent question is:
A question which requires creative thinking to answer.
All of the following are roles of the teacher in using the inquiry strategy except:
Discourages student from ideas that are unorthodox.
Pick the true statements about the inquiry strategy.
Slower students are often confused by attempting to deal with It helps students learn how to learn. Inquiry sessions may be monopolized by students who are more intellectually able.
1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 4
According to Dewey's definition of inquiry, which of the following is true?
Inquiry is a persistent and careful consideration. The students' approach to inquiry is active, not passive.
A stimulus device, or event, serves as a focus for an inquiry lesson.
It should be at variance with the students' expectations.
A portion of reality in an artificial situation.
Which of the following is (are) rule(s) for simulation?
Create student interest in learning. Look at selected controlled situations. Involve students in potentially threatening situations without danger to them. All of the above. Page 6
Individualized Instruction
In evaluating an individualized program for proper use of materials,
Cost Allows for efficiency in teaching
Some of the advantages of individualized instruction are:
Less work involved in using the individualized approach. Fewer discipline problems, better adjusted students. Parent support, less truancy and dropouts. B and C. A, B, and C.
PLATO is another individualized program which is short for:
Programmed Learning in Accordance to Objectives.
During the Prescriptive Stage of an individualized instruction program the teacher:
Tells the student which of the learning activities are best suited
A program where students work for pay as producing employees with no related classroom instruction and limited school supervision is known as:
Primarily an exploratory activity in which the student does not actually perform work is known as:
An alternative of school and work that is related to the student's occupational goal; the student receives pay and credits. This describes :
Select the cluster of field experience that involve a work situation
An appropriate Independent Study plan for Vocational Education would
Student characteristics that result in successful Independent Study
Strategy Decision Items (Questions 41-44): select an appropriate instructional strategy and two (2) alternative strategies for each question. Be prepared to defend your choices.
Working as part of a group, the student will demonstrate the ability to
define a problem, formulate and analyze possible solutions, then test the
hypothetical solutions until one is found to be suitable.
In a real or realistic situation, the student will demonstrate effective a
nication techniques in selling a product.
teacher: concerned about students' ability to "do the job" after
student(s): high school seniors enrolled in an agribusiness class
Beginning of the school year
A classroom is available.
Community locations are a possibility.
Resources depend mostly on the ingenuity of the teacher. Page 7
a former Peace Corps volunteer and recruiter with a wide
variety of experiences and contacts relating to health occupation opportunities world wide. student(s) : members of a care class on health occupations--the class has
The WHEN variable: A maximum of one hour is available.
The WHERE variable: A large classroom is regularly scheduled.
The HOW variable: Audiovisual equipment is available.
44.The Behavioral Objective:
Given any automobile, the student will conduct a safety inspection of all
lights on or in the passenger vehicle in accordance with given procedures.
a proficient auto mechanic--relates well to small groups of
there are 25 of them crowded into an inadequately-sized facility.
Their abilities vary--a few of the students have already mastered this objective- others still need instruction. The WHEN variable:
Various activities are carried on at
he same time around the shop to make
maximum use of the space.
Thus the time allowed for this objective is flexible.
A small laboratory; there is space for only one vehicle inside at a time.
Resources are very limited.
No commercial audiovisual or self-study guides
Student responses to these items should be
*DEMONSTRATION METHOD: A procedure for doing something in the presence of others for the purpose of either showing them how to do it themselves or to illustrate a principle.
*DISCOVERY METHOD: A procedure in teaching which emphasizes individual study, manipulation of objects, and other experimentation by the student before
DISCUSSION METHOD: A small number of goal directed learners who meet together concerning a common topic and who interact verbally to initiate, exchange, and evaluate information and ideas.
FIELD EXPERIENCE: A strategy that utilizes experiences in a work setting to achieve educational goals.
GAMES (EDUCATIONAL): A type of simulation restricted by rules, where the individual who gains the most information becomes the winner.
INDEPENDENT STUDY: Educational activity carried on by an individual seeking self-improvement, usually but not always self-initiated.
INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION: A type of teaching/learning in which the teacher patterns instruction to the individual learner.
* INQUIRY: A strategy for learning by encouraging students to be inquisitive and curious and to try to find answers for themselves.
*LABORATORY METHOD: The instructional procedure by which the cause, effect, nature, or property of any phenomenon, whether social, psychological, or physical, is determined by actual experience or experiment under controlled conditions.
*LECTURE METHOD: An instructional procedure by which the lecturer seeks to create interest, to influence, stimulate, or mold opinion, to promote activity, to impart information, or to develop critical thinking, largely by the use of the verbal message, with a minimum of class participation.
*LECTURE - DEMONSTRATION METHOD: An instructional procedure in which the verbal message is accompanied by the use of apparatus to demonstrate principles, determine or verify facts, clarify difficult parts, or test for comprehension of the material under discussion.
*MICROTEACHING: A type of simulation in which the "teacher" instructs a small group of students in a laboratory setting.
QUESTION: A series of words which is understood by the listener and propels the Page 8
*QUESTIONING: A method of instruction based on the use of questions to be answered by the student.
*SIMULATION: In learning, making the practice and materials as near as possible to the situation in which the learning will be applied.
* Taken from or adapted from Carter V. Good, Dictionary of Education, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1973.
Describe and demonstrate lecture techniques.
Instructional Objective 1.1
The learner will provide a personal definition of effective lecturing, and will identify advantages and disadvantages of the lecture method.
Instructional Objective 1.2
The learner will identify basic elements of communication skills for effective lecturing.
Instructional Objective 1.3
The learner will demonstrate through "mini-lecture" (5-7 minutes) and self-critique of the presentation, the ability to apply lecture techniques. Page 9
The lecture is probably the most severely criticized and misused form of
communication in education.
Also it is probably used more frequently than
any other instructional strategy.
Are you planning to omit this particular section of the module?
a reaction on your part would be quite understandable.
and many of us have used this strategy again
and again and again. Right?
But how many really good lectures have you heard ... and how many
good lectures have you presented? Why is it that some lecturers can keep
300 people on the edges of their chairs for an entire hour, and others can
put an audience to sleep in 30 seconds?
If you are going to use the lecture method or help other teachers to use
this approach, then it will be to your advantage to learn desirable lecturing
Instructional Objective 1.1
The learner will provide a personal definition of effective lecturing,
and will identify advantages and disadvantages of the lecture method.
Learning Activity 1.1-a: A Personalized View
Write down on another sheet of paper the three most memorable
(personally meaningful) learning experiences you can recall
in which the lecture method was utilized.
the individual who gave each memorable lecture.
to identify the three lectures that, from your perspective,
seem to have had a significant impact on you.
Next, analyze the strengths of these three lectures.
to identify and write down why each was memorable to you.
of the listeners account for some of the impact of the lecture?
* Was the lecture a planned event or did it happen spontaneously?
* Was there anything special about what you learned?
learning fall under the rubric of "subject matter" or was
the learning more unusual and/or personal?
* Was there anything unique about you at the time of each
For example, did you feel an especially strong
Next, try to make generalizations about the conditions that,
for you, are needed for a lecture to have significant personal
Are there some commonalities about these three lectures
Finally, write down your prescription for the types of
lecturing skills and techniques that you want to develop.
other words, compare your own present lecturing style with
the generalizations for effective lecturing that you have just
Despite frequent condemnation of the lecture as an instruc
tional strategy, there are some learning situations for which
It offers certain advantages over other
Some of the evidence in favor of lectures is as
* Some students learn more readily by listening than by reading.
* It is easier for an instructor to coordinate lectures (than
accomplished more easily by a single effort than by having
all students work with the equipment.
* The "explosion of knowledge" seriously limits the amount of
current information that can be transmitted through text
* Lectures are economical in terms of teacher time.
* Inspiring teachers, by lecturing, are able to spark the
interest of many students.
* Lectures may be particularly valuable in introducing a
concept and students can be encouraged to study a subject
that might otherwise prove intimidating to them.
lecture allows the presentor to focus and direct attention
* Through lecturing, the teacher can provide useful repetition
Frequent summaries are helpful in
synthesizing large amounts of information for student retention.
* Demonstrations enable the teacher to utilize activities that
might be too dangerous for pupils themselves to perform in
* Large group presentations increase the access ability of
What other advantages of the lecture would you add to this
What are some disadvantages of the lecture approach?
Instructional Objective 1.2
The learner will identify basic elements of communication skills for
Read the following discussion of effective lecturing behaviors.
These criteria will be used later to evaluate your micro
SOME TESTED PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LECTURING BEHAVIORS
This part of the lecturing category consists of a mini-encyclopedia of
communication skills that can help to make lectures more effective.
Encourage Student Verbal Participation--both during and after the
The basic premise of this principle is that teacher talk dominates
Effective teacher behavior, even during a lecture,
entails some interaction.
a totally teacher-dominated lecture is never appropriate in an educational
It does mean that the amount of student learning is generally
negatively correlated with the amount of teacher talk.
teachers should be the fostering of a classroom environment conducive to
student verbal involvement.
How can teachers help students increase their levels of verbal communica
tion during and after the lecture?
They can attempt to know their students
and help them to know each other.
The teacher can communicate to each student,
both verbally and non-verbally, that, "I want you to respond, and I will
respect you regardless of whether you answer in ways that I consider 'correct'
This type of behavior requires the teacher to remove, as
much as possible, student fears of ridicule or failure.
One of the most effective ways of ameliorating
students' fear of failure is to offer positive feedback when they make contri
butions to the lecture. Learning theory has provided ample evidence that Page 10
reinforcement is a major component of effective learning. Of course, a
major problem facing the teacher is the difficulty of giving positive feed
back to thirty students participating in a learning endeavor.
may be unrealistic to give positive feedback 100 percent of the time, the
teacher's overall behavior should reflect a commitment and ability to use
positive rather than aversive and punitive forms of control.
3. Display a Sense of humor.
It is often effective, in terms of gaining
student attention, to tell a story or share an anecdote.
that the teacher must do a Johnny Carson monologue or a Dick Gregory routine
to produce an environment conducive to learning. Being funny is not nearly
as important as having a sense of humor--of laughing with students and showing
them that you, the teacher, appreciate occasional levity, too.
Use Conversational Style.
Rhetoric may be an interesting field of
study, but the classroom is not an appropriate place for the teacher to
Explicit language delivered in a logical manner
and in a customary conversational style helps students focus on what is being
said rather than how it is being spoken.
In 1961, Homer Rose offered the
following rules of speaking to teacher candidates.
Use terms which your students understand.
Do not use a large number of words which are unfamiliar
Use technical terms when they are essential, but define
Eliminate unnecessary words and phrases.
Change a few of your key statements to questions to which
Vary your sentence construction to add interest to your
Be specific. Whether your primary objective is to have
Be Alert to Voice Quality--Tone, Rate, Enunciation.
not be listening even though they are able to hear the teacher.
the selection process is dependent on the speaker's rate of speaking, the
tone and enunciation, as well as the content of the message.
students "select" consciously or unconsciously what they will listen to and
vary rate of speech in congruence with the type of material being discussed,
to pause occasionally and give students a chance to cognitively process the
information, to vary pitch and intonation for interest, to give stress to
points of significance, and to enunciate words so that they can be understood.
An easy technique to check for these variances is to audio tape just a few
cannot be forced, but it can be nurtured if the teacher constantly searches
for new and useful materials that make the subject not only more interesting
and relevant to students, but to the teacher as well.
what you are teaching is meaningful and worthwhile, your students will be
able to sense this enthusiasm.
Be Prepared. Knowledge of the subject matter and careful preparation
are influential traits in motivating students.
When the teacher does not feel
1 Homer C. Rose, The Instructor and His Job (U.S.A. American Technical Society, 1961), p. 81.
comfortable with the material, the teacher tends to react defensively toward
student-directed questions.
Whereas teacher confidence tends to breed pupil
confidence in the value of learning and in the teacher figure, lack of teacher
confidence tends to promote dysfunctional student contempt and boredom.
Lectures should be planned and organized so that they do not digress.
is often effective to announce your purpose at the beginning of the lecture.
The lecture development should then stick to the theme.
How are you going to deal with student questions, or
with student denials of what you are saying? Will you react defensively?
Probably the most effective teacher behavior in handling these types of
situations is exhibited by the instructor who is able to be open and honest
You don't have to know all the answers.
fact, you most certainly won't know them all.
The teacher who can indicate a willingness to explore new responses and
exhibit a willingness to change, will find that the students will also begin
to develop these behaviors.
Students often have new and creative ideas that
may not have occurred to you.
This type of student contribution can be one
of the more satisfying aspects of the teaching profession.
Use the Experiential Background of the Audience.
be related to students' backgrounds, knowledges, skills, and interests.
they are not, the students are soon "lost."
Don't rehash textbooks or other materials the students have read
or should have read for themselves.
The lecture should present new and
fresh ideas not readily available to students.
can also include simple visual aids such as specimens, flat pictures,
(especially at the secondary level) in taking simple notes and in organizing
Instructional Objective 1.3
The learner will demonstrate through a "mini-lecture" (5-7 minutes)
and a self-critique of the presentation, the ability to apply lecture
ANNOTATED LIST OF SELECTED RESOURCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
Callahan, Sterling G. Successful Teaching in Secondary Schools. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1971.
Provides some helpful discussion on types of lectures and criteria
Coleman, John E. The Master Teachers and The Art of Teaching. Pitman Publishing Corp., 1967.
Discusses, along with nineteen other approaches, the lecture method-its background, advantages, and disadvantages. Also reviews the five steps required in the formal lecture today.
New York: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1970.
Offers rationale, underlying justifications, and helpful guidelines
Means, Richard. Methodology in Education. Merrill Publishing Co., 1968.
A little book with a lot (over 70) of "methods.' It presents Page 11
Describe and demonstrate a variety of techniques appropriate for small
Instructional Objective 2.1
The learner will define and describe discussion as it applies to teaching and learning.
Instructional Objective 2.2
The learner will compare and contrast nine types of discussion.
Instructional Objective 2.3
The learner will select an appropriate type of discussion group to meet a stated objective.
Instructional Objective 2.4
The learner will demonstrate the use of brainstorming as a discussion technique and will test "Uses of Small Group Discussion in Vocational Classes."
Instructional Objective 2.5
The learner will participate in a Buzz Group to aid in understanding this type of discussion technique; the learner will specify his/her feelings or opinions concerning student achievement levels.
Instructional Objective 2.6
The learner will identify methods of encouraging student participation in discussion.
Instructional Objective 2.7
The learner will prepare a discussion lesson plan that could be used in a vocational class.
Describe and demonstrate a variety of techniques appropriate for group
Instructional Objective 2.1
The learner will define and describe discussion as it applies to
What is a "discussion" as it applies to teaching and learning? First, a
discussion is not merely an informal group "rapping" in a comfortable corridor.
Nor is it a clique-dominated bull session conducted by only a few group
Nor is it the type of activity that is too frequently called "a
discussion"--an assignment where the teacher tells the class to read certain
pages and to be prepared to "discuss" them the following day. Unfortunately " .
this situation often dissolves into a lecture-quiz of textbook facts; maybe
into a low level recitation session.
There are times when this may be a
legitimate teaching strategy, but it is not a discussion--and should not be
What is the difference, then, between lectures, recitations, and discussions? Page 12
Obviously, group size is an important distinguishing feature.
be given to any size group, recitations are more likely to be one-to-one
exchanges, while discussions involve a high degree of interaction among three
Lectures (as noted in the earlier category of this module) do not particu
larly involve students (involvement in a physical or verbal sense).
lecturers do allow for student response to questions, but the primary emphasis
of a lecture is the deliverance of a predetermined quantity of material, all
controlled by the teacher.
Conversely a discussion denotes an active process of student-teacher or
student-student involvement in the classroom situation.
viewpoint, recitation and lecture are relatively passive activities.
allows active student involvement in discovering and stating personal viewpoints,
not merely repeating that which has already been presented.
For purposes of this module, and so that the separate parts of the discussion
process may be more clearly delineated, a discussion is defined as including
(1) a small number (3-15) of students meeting together, (2) who
recognize a common topic or problem, (3) who are being directed toward some
goal (often of their own choosing), (4) who initiate, exchange, and evaluate
information and ideas, and (5) who interact verbally--objectively and emotionally.
Why use discussion? The principle purpose of a discussion is to promote
meaningful personal interaction, and of course, learning. The learning may
involve skills, attitudes, or processes.
An accepted psychological principle
is that people learn best when they are actively involved or participating.
Thus, if a teacher desires to promote a wide range of interests, opinions, and
perspectives, small group discussions are one way to accomplish the goal.
a teacher desires to have different students doing different tasks or activities
at the same time, all leading to meaningful goals, then discussions are
If a teacher desires to practice indirect control of thought,
then discussion is an appropriate technique.
structure some informality in the group, then the use of discussions would
FORMATIVE CHECKS
On a separate sheet of paper:
List at least four elements that need to be present in order to label
an activity as being a discussion.
List at least three reasons for using discussion techniques. Before
going further, write your definition of small-group discussion.
Instructional Objective 2.2
The learner will compare and contrast nine types of discussion.
Read the description of types of discussion groups which
follows. Then, prepare a grid which compares and contrasts
the nine types of discussion groups.
used for comparison may vary, but the final product should
to have small groups of 3-4 students each prepare the grid,
using large sheets of paper and felt tip pens or crayons.
Either option could be followed by a comparison of grids
prepared by individuals or groups.
1 TYPES OF DISCUSSION GROUPS
There are a variety of discussion techniques which have been successfully
These can be classified in several ways.
identifying and listing nine types.
These are not discrete types and some
actually involve the use of several of the other identified types.
tional Education Curriculum Specialist must be aware of the characteristics
of different types of discussion groups to recommend proper usage.
When facilitating a small group discussion, the teacher must make a
decision about the emphasis of the group.
Some types emphasize the interaction
of group members, or process.
Other types emphasize the completion of a given
Another variable to be considered is the degree of teacher
In the following descriptions, the groups are listed
in descending order of teacher (leader) control.
A small group discussion type in which the primary
purpose is to give information to participants is commonly called a "didactic"
group. The basic procedure for the didactic group is to subdivide the class
into small groups where either the teacher, a teacher aide, or student leader
presents some information or material to others.
The didactic group should
be small, probably 5-7 members, and is highly product oriented.
should encourage students to lead the group if they are ready.
the shy or less confident ones, this may take considerable effort. Help each
1 Adapted from Donald 0. Orlich, R. A. Pendergrass, and Constance Kravas, Conducting Successful Discussion, a module utilized at Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 1972. (Mimeographed.)
leader focus on the key concepts of his lesson.
Organize the students into
groups based on their needs, or if possible, on the basis of interests.
the discussions start, the teacher should observe various groups, especially
the presenters in these groups, so that feedback can be given to them to help
them improve their own skills.
Usually the tutorial discussion group is used to help
students who have had difficulties in learning, or in progressing at a satis
The tutorial group focuses on a narrow amount of material and
only a few students (4-5) should be in the group.
discussion has three major functions to perform:
(1) question the students to
pinpoint the exact problem that is blocking learning, (2) provide information,
or help, in order to facilitate learning, and (3) encourage the students to
question-and-answer among themselves.
Remember that students often learn better
from each other than from the teacher!
Prior to using student tutors, a teacher must be satisfied that each
potential student tutor has mastered competencies such as the skills of questioning,
giving positive reinforcement, and analyzing work tasks.
are currently using student tutors and are finding them to be invaluable
resources for the classroom teacher.
Although remedial work will probably be used most often to alleviate student
learning difficulties, the tutorial discussion group is an excellent method to
encourage independent projects for advanced learners.
Many gifted students will
find it a challenge to try and explain their project to other students.
The person who leads the tutorial type of discussion will need to have
developed some skills in the area of human relations.
be patient yet provide encouragement, be warm and friendly, yet keep the group
moving towards its product, and be accepting of others who learn slowly, yet not
accepting of non-effort by group members.
One of the least complex discussion types is that of the
As the name implies, students are involved in some type of work
or activity in which significant contributions can be made by each group member.
Prerequisite to using the task group is the specification of clearly defined tasks
Similar to a committee, a task group has clearly defined
goals, clearly identified individual assignments and roles. Further, it may be
beneficial for the teacher to establish a work schedule, a system for internal
monitoring of achievements, and possibly even provide all of the learning
resources that may be necessary to accomplish the identified tasks.
Task groups tend to be teacher dominated in that the teacher does the
selecting of the tasks and usually assigns each class member to accomplish some
This discussion type can be used very efficiently during the early
part of a semester when a teacher is attempting to prepare students with specific
The socratic group has a distinct process orientation,
but product is its key element.
The process is patterned after the teaching
style of Socrates, who would pose a problem and then question his students until
they arrived at an aswer.
Each response by the student produced either a challenge
from Socrates or a new question leading to the solution of the problem.
This type of discussion can accommodate a large number of participants.
one caution is that if ten to fifteen students are in the group, then the leader
must challenge all to become involved and not let just a few do all the inter
Students should be given a brief overview of how the group process works.
They need to understand that the main role of the teacher is to be an "informa
tion or opinion seeker" and "facilitator", and that the students' role is that Page 13
of "information or opinion giver" and "clarifier or elaborator."
The typical way to start a socratic discussion is to pose a problem which
is either divergent or evaluative.
The problem should be one in which student
response can be determined through an exchange of information or opinions, or
through the utilization of appropriate reference materials.
leader must make a snap decision after each student response to determine
whether to challenge the response, reject the response as it is going in the
wrong direction, accept the response as being totally correct and move to the
next logical question, or to use part of the response in formulating the next
You will no doubt realize that an effective socratic
discussion leader needs to be able to think quickly.
There is one problem with this discussion type.
use this type far too early in the school year, prior to knowing their students
In challenging student responses, some teachers have a tendency to
become cutting and derogatory in their remarks.
Thus, the teacher must under
stand that this discussion type has actually two basic stages:
is that which has been described above, the analytic stage.
As a transition between the two stages, after the teacher has had an
opportunity to demand self-analysis and self-criticism of the comments or argu
ments that have been made, the teacher then calls for an interim recess, or
rest period, where the teacher attempts to summarize all of the points that have
been made as well as the errors of logic or fact.
After the summary has been
posted the teacher then sets the stage for phase two.
The second phase of the socratic type commences when the teacher asks the
students to begin to evaluate statements that have been presented and to rephrase
or reform the statements so that they become more valid, more descriptive, more
operationally defined or accurate.
During phase two the teacher must be very
supportive and attempt to clarify all statements.
During the second stage of the
socratic discussion the teacher role is that of synthesizer and summarizer.
obviously, this type of discussion group could be extremely self-damaging to
students with low self-confidence.
Throughout the discussion the teacher should
explain all that is taking place and why the teacher is attempting to do it.
The "Phillips 66" discussion group involves exactly
It is established quickly and does not call for pre-orientation
of students, and students do not have to be highly skilled in group interaction for
this type of discussion to work.
In fact, the Phillips 66 technique is most
appropriate as an initial mixer activity.
The class is divided into groups of six.
The groups then have one minute
in which to pick a secretary and a leader.
The teacher gives a clear and con
cise statement of the problem or issue for discussion.
discussion is then started and students have exactly six minutes to come to an
agreement as to the best solution of the problem.
Other than starting the dis
cussion, the teacher has no formal part in the discussion group.
The shorter the period of time for discussion, the fewer the
number of group participants, so let time dictate the size within a five to
The discussion is started by the leader who briefly states the problem
Every school subject has some elements which require
students to do some free-wheeling thinking.
This is when you want to use a
After the topic is stated and before interaction starts, it is crucial to
select a method of recording the discussion.
It could be taped, or one or more
students who write quickly could serve as recorders.
stress to the group that all ideas need to be expressed.
to realize that quantity of suggestions is paramount.
There are some very important rules to follow when using the brainstorming
The following rules seem to be especially important.
All ideas, except for obvious jokes, should be acknowledged.
Members should be encouraged to build on each other's ideas.
final analysis, no idea belongs to an individual, so encourage
group members from trying to think creatively or intelligently.
Brainstorming is an initiating process and must be followed up with some
One way to follow up would be to use the ideas generated in
the brainstorming session as the basis for another "type" of discussion.
the discussion or brainstorming session, it is important that ideas be evaluated
and as many as possible be used by students in follow-up activities.
evaluation of a brainstorming session should not be lengthy and it should be
non-threatening for the participants.
If a teacher desires to emphasize the inquiry approach,
or discovery teaching, then the heuristic discussion group is extremely valuable.
Any number of students may be in the discussion group, but it is suggested that
six to ten would be ideal.
The purposes of the heuristic group discussions are easily stated; stimula
tion of scientific thinking, development of problem solving skills, and the
acquisition of new facts.
It is possible that the teacher may always be the
leader of this type of group.
However, if you have a student who has demonstrated
good questioning skills and who understands the concept (facts) under considera
tion, then let that student be the leader.
2 J. Richard Suchman has long encouraged teachers to establish environments
where inquiry development is used to stimulate students to become skillful askers
At the first stage of the Suchman model, students are presented with
a problem which demonstrates some principle. Following the exhibition of the
problem, a departure for inquiry is utilized where the students ask the teacher a
specific question to which the teacher can only answer with a "yes" or "no.'
Suchman then proposes another procedure where the teacher allows students to test
hypotheses so they may determine, by direct evidence, whether or not the hypotheses
which they construct were valid.
The heuristic group discussion is most appropriate
to those disciplines which lend themselves to problem-solving.
It must be realized that, prior to using heuristic discussions, a teacher
must first allow students to participate by asking questions which would be genera
ted by making selected observations of phenomena, role playing episodes, or other
After students have mastered the observing, question-asking and
inferring behaviors, other sets of problems could be identified by the teacher and
the class subdivided into small groups to complete the investigation of the
To make the heuristic group most meaningful, the teacher must plan for
an activity which has some degree of authenticity.
"How" students ask questions might be tabulated using the following format.
Note that there are five categories of higher order questions, one
2 J. Richard Suchman, Developing Inquiry, (Chicago, IL: Science Research Associates, 1966).
category of formal hypothesis stating, and one catch-all type category for
miscellaneous statements.
We will suggest that the evaluation be done in
(1) the teacher keeps a running check going as each person
comments during the discussion, (2) the discussion be taped (preferably video)
and the students evaluated during the playback, or that (3) another teacher do Page 14
The buzz group is best suited to a small number of
students (5-7) who are fairly self-directed.
The teacher should be an outside
observer, although it is permissible to provide resource help if the group asks
Discussion is opened with a background event, then the class divides into
Each group discusses some specific question arising from the event.
The group should have a leader who will direct the discussion and then serve as
spokesperson in reporting to the other groups.
Each group conducts their own discussion for approximately ten to fifteen
The group tries to arrive at a consensus answer for the question they
At the end of the discussion period each of the leaders reports
This can be followed with a large group question-and
answer session led by the teacher, or the class might choose to go into task
groups to pursue some aspects of the problem.
The discursive discussion group has free and uninhibited
discussion by students on a topic which they select.
The discursive discussion,
therefore, is one which is totally student managed and oriented to student issues
The major factor in determining the size of the group is student
As many (up to 15) students as are interested in the topic can partici
The length of time will also vary with each discussion session, and no
absolute time guidelines can be given; however, it is often wise to end the
discussion before the subject is beat to death.
This maintains interest for the
next discussion period because the students know that they will get another
opportunity to express themselves.
It should be kept in mind that discursive groups are high level thinking
They are not spur-of-the-moment episodes, or useful merely
to kill time (e.g., It is Friday afternoon; why not just let the students discuss
until the bell rings?). Students need time and resources to prepare for the
Group leaders, with help from the teacher, should encour
age each student to be emotionally and academically equipped for the discussion.
The process of the discursive group should be carefully evaluated.
student, and the group as a whole, should receive feedback relating to the func
tions that they performed during the discussion.
Evaluation requires an observer
to tabulate behaviors as they occur, or a video tape recording of the session.
DISCUSSION GROUP COMPARISON GRID (Sample)
CONTROL TYPE 1) Didactic High
INITIATION Teacher appoints compe- student as leaders Specific topic or project
PURPOSE SIZE ORGANIZATION Give new information small Subdivide into small groups according to students (5-7) to needs and interest a) Help students who small Few students focusing on narrow have learning diffi- (5-7) amount of material culties b) Provide encouragement to advanced student with independent projects vari- Each class member assigned activity with contri- able specific role butions made by each (commit- group member tee) (15 max) and facilitator. Student: information/opinion giver and clarifier Initial mixer activity, 6 Group composed of exactly 6 students or Reach quick consensus Obtain a wide range of variable Select method of recording ideas responses for all(5-15) students Stimulate inquiry, medium Present group with a problem of scientific thinking, and (6-10) some authenticity problem solving skills Provides practice in small Teacher is outside observer leadership, formation (5-7) Leader directs discussion and of consensus opinion acts as spokesman Allows uninhibited dis- variable Student managed: cussion on subject of (2-15) Choose topics & form groups student's choosing Choose leaders & recorders Assign research roles in advance
5) Phillips 66 6) Brain- storming
Teacher presents concise
Open with background event
Teacher/leader presents information; students encouraged to verbalize
2) Tutor needs skills in human relations 3)
Question and answer session with students and tutor Each member contributes to group in satisfying task assignment
4) Don't use too early in year , before students and teacher are well acquainted
Students formulate answers to questions from teacher
Instructional Objective 2.3
The learner will select an appropriate type of discussion group to
For the following situations or objectives, select an appro
priate type of discussion group.
A vocational youth group is having a difficult time with fund raising ideas.
Several members of the class are very proficient at a particular
Students complain that they are not allowed to discuss issues in which they are interested.
Several students have attended a leadership conference and have information that needs to be shared with all members of the class.
Four students are having extreme difficulty in understanding a basic concept.
A decision must be reached by consensus in a very short time.
Students demonstrate real difficulty in thinking through problems.
There appears to be a problem too large to handle.
Students need experience in the process of discovering, inquiring.
The class is to provide possible field trip sites of interest to the subject matter being taught.
The teacher has a problem and will dominate the group to get the result and appoints a committee to attack the problem. Page 15
The teacher explains to class that the television set does not They are to solve the problem.
Class has been in session for a full semester and the teacher
The class is broken into groups of five (5) students and given
The first day of class the teacher wants a mixer activity to get students involved and acquainted.
Five students have failed a quiz on salesmanship and the teacher needs to work with this group to find out why.
Instructional Objective 2.4
(Optional--students can meet either Instructional Objective 2.4 or
Instructional Objective 2.5)
The learner will demonstrate the use of brainstorming as a discussion
technique and will test "Uses of Small Group Discussion in Vocational
Participate in a brainstorming group in which the topic
"The Use of Small Group Discussions in Vocational Classes"
Learners should break into groups of approxi
mately six individuals, with each group selecting one person
to be the leader, and one person to be the recorder.
leader's role will be to insure that all members participate
and to encourage the sharing of all constructive ideas.
recorder will test each idea or statement.
In a period of ten minutes, your group should try to generate
as many statements as possible about the usefulness of small
group discussions in a particular vocational area.
is to criticize the suggestions of any other member.
conclusion of the ten minutes, the recorder can share the list
What is the value of the brainstorming method for voca
Using the list generated in the preceding brainstorming session
(topic: "Use of Small Group Discussion for Vocational Classes"),
compare your statements with the ones suggested below.
Purposes of Small Group Discussions
Interest can be aroused at the beginning or closing of a
Small groups can identify problems or issues to be studied
or suggest alternatives for pursuing a topic under considera
A small group can explore new ideas or ways to solve problems,
either covering the entire problem solving cycle or just a
an opportunity to evaluate data, opinions,
sources of information, and to structure concepts for future
of the discipline and to verbalize it in an appropriate
Ideas become more meaningful and personal if a student must
Flexibility toward understanding other viewpoints may also be
Instructional Objective 2.5
(Optional--Learners can meet either Instructional Objective 2.4 or
Instructional Objective 2.5.)
The learner will participate in a Buzz Group to aid in understanding this
type of discussion technique; the learner will specify his/her feelings
Your group (probably five or six members) will need a spokesperson;
therefore, elect this person before the discussion starts.
spokesperson will later report your conclusions to the other
group, or to the instructor.
The group has approximately 15
minutes to decide which of the three postulates below is most Page 16
to arrive at a consensus decision or explain why consensus could
not be reached if divergence of opinion is still apparent at the
The spokesperson will report your conclusions to the rest of the
Postulate 1. Students achieve in a direct ratio to what
Postulate 2. Student achievement is related to three factors-teacher behavior, student behavior, and classroom environment. All three factors are very important and highly interrelated.
Postulate 3. Students achieve very little in secondary school, but what little they do achieve is mostly related to how well they like school.
back to each other concerning group skills that particular individ
uals need to develop. Try to be a positive criticizer.
that we all need help in having our weaknesses pointed out to us.
After the initial rounds of discussion, assign three group
members to read and report on Pygmalion in the Classroom by
I thought that the discussion:
gave everyone a
was dominated by
With respect to my participation in the discussion, I was:
There are no great secrets of the discussion group trade.
undoubtedly have some group members who are real "motor mouths", and those
The following ideas will be helpful to you
facilitating small group discussion, and as always, encourage you to use your
success, the teacher may let students group with friends until students learn
not to feel threatened by group work.
Try to be sure that each group has the
skills needed to complete the task.
The teacher should encourage direction toward goals (either teacher
set or group set). ' If the goal has many divergent points, then work toward
If it is to come to a decision or solve a problem, aim towards that.
Train the groups in procedures for setting activities and schedules, how to acquire
necessary resources, divide labor, etc.
Help a friendly atmosphere prevail where disagreement is permitted
objectively but not emotionally or in a hostile verbal form.
tinguish between disagreeing with an idea and disagreeing with the person who
Expect the students to joke and kid around some.
force them to always be serious, and to work on the task 100 percent of the time.
There are any number of techniques the teacher can use to get voice
contact from non-contributing members.
They are limited only to the creative
resources of the teacher.
For example, have an inflated beach ball which the
leader throws whenever he/she wants a student to speak.
technique to employ in a group which is dominated by a few constant talkers.
Call on student "B" by name and ask her/him to paraphrase what student "A"
has just said (to A's satisfaction) and then add his/her own idea.
"C" must paraphrase "B" to B's satisfaction and so on throughout the period.
The paraphrasing, besides encouraging listening and focusing on thinking, gives
the student a chance to say something on a one-to-one non-threatening basis
before giving a personal idea to the group.
FORMATIVE CHECKS
Place a check (x) by each statement that serves as a motivator toward partici
Permit disagreement only if it is objective, not if it is emotional
Use an inflated beach ball and throw it to the student whom you
Don't call on students who you are sure will have the wrong answer
The learner will prepare a discussion lesson plan that could be used
Your task is to develop a lesson plan for a vocational class
in which the primary technique is discussion.
elements should be included:
1. description of the vocational class for which the discussion
2. performance objective and a rationale for the objective;
3. description of the discussion technique to be utilized and
the reason(s) for using the technique to achieve the
4. discussion device, i.e., what will you use to stimulate
film, handout, etc.), and Page 17
ANNOTATED REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
Among the most important innovations proposed by Dr. Glasser is the
Great Books Foundation. The Dynamics of Classroom Discussion. Great Books Foundation, 307 N. Michigan Ave., 1970.
A twenty-hour course for classroom teachers in the discussion method
Gulley, Halbert E. Discussion, Conference, and Group Processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968.
A comprehensive textbook on discussion, this book promotes an under- sharing, and it also describes elements of public and large-group discussion. The definitions, models, skills, evaluation measures, and overall ideas and information can be adapted for public schools' work and are useful for persons interested in teaching through the discussion strategy
Institute for Development of Educational Activities. Learning in the Small Group. Melbourne, FL: Institute for Development of Educational Activities, Information and Services Division, P.O. Box 446, 32901, 1971.
A classroom manual based on a national seminar, this paperback illustrates and briefly describes twelve variations on learning in the small group. The presentations on structuring the small group are extremely valuable for beginning or experienced teachers who are interested in using the discussion strategy. A film based on the manual is also available. Both would be helpful in furthering understanding of the discovery strategy.
National Training Laboratory. The Fishbowl Design for Discussion. Washington, DC: National Training Laboratory, 1812 K Street NW, 20006, 1970.
This exercise is one of a number of materials available through NTL to
Group Processes in the Classroom.
Schmuck, Richard A., and Schmuck, Patricia A. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Co., 1971.
The authors describe, through theory, research, and example, the basic characteristics of groups in the classroom. Very worthwhile in itself, this paperback is also an example of the many books available on "group processes"--activities that make use of the discussion strategy.
Stanford, Gene, and Stanford, Barbara Dodds. Learning Discussion Skills Through Games. New York: Citation Press, 1969.
A small paperback that provides a sequence of skill-building games and activities designed to give students necessary practice in discussion techniques. It also presents 15 remedial devices for use whenever a group shows signs of a particular weakness in working together. Page 18
Prepare, present and evaluate a demonstration of a selected concept in a
Prepare, present and evaluate a demonstration of a selected concept in a
An effective demonstration is the art of combining words and actions
in an interesting pattern to create a desired response in the observer.
is an effective method of learning concepts in vocational education because
of the close relationship between development of knowledge, attitudes and skills.
The vocational educator uses the demonstration method for presenting proper
methods and procedures in attaining desired results, for introducing new and
different techniques to the learner, for displaying essential behaviors which
contribute to successful employment and for aiding in setting standards for
work habits and motivating students.
The final success of a demonstration is measured by the changes in behavior
of the people who hear and see it.
The demonstrator has the key role of com
bining personality, knowledge, and skill into a unified whole.
tors of a demonstration when successfully combined, will create in the observers
the desired behavioral changes leading to mastery of the demonstration objective.
To effectively use this technique, the user must have a working knowledge
Regardless of the subject, the basic techniques of a good demonstration
The effectiveness of the demonstration is directly correlated
with the amount of preparation and planning used by the demonstrator.
Detailed planning is necessary before any presentation can be given.
Effectiveness will depend upon careful consideration of the questions which
Although this is a demonstration, it is also a lecture, and
the audience expects the demonstrator to be continually talking and explain
This dialogue is referred to by the professionals as "chatter" and it
must have some relationship to the material being presented or procedure being
To incorporate action and chatter into a smooth presentation, practice
Is the topic relevant to their current and future needs?
Is the purpose to entertain, stimulate, convince or create
What skills, knowledge, attitudes are necessary for their
Page 19
Are tools, equipment and supplies ready and functioning properly?
Is there a logical order of activity within the time limit?
Was equipment used skillfully?
Were the following personal qualities evidenced?
eye contact, voice, mannerisms, general grooming, rate of
All the time spent on preparation is wasted unless the presentation is
smooth, easily executed, and has continuity.
Opening remarks must be short and to the point, yet be interesting and moti
Familiarity with each step in the demonstration will help the handling of
materials to be automatic, do away with the possibility of the unexpected
happening, and allow the demonstrator to focus more attention on what is being
Apologies are not as necessary as the explanation of the mishap.
Do not brush off a mistake, rather explain what happened and what could have been
Does it provide the reason why this demonstration is important?
Are there any signs of confusion, inattention or disbelief?
Is suspense or curiosity built by questions and wondering out loud?
Is the final product available for students to analyze?
The final stage in the art of demonstrating is to critique the effect
iveness of the presentation.
Having a successful demonstration is possible
only if the observers understand and are able to behave differently as a
result of observing the demonstration.
Standards must have been maintained
so the student will have adequate guidelines to follow in their own perfor
The process of evaluation becomes two-pronged for the demonstrator.
If a demonstration is used to help others learn, one must first consider the
learner in evaluating effectiveness.
Self-evaluation becomes the second
A score card has been included in Appendix B for use in the
How did students react or interact during the demonstration?
ANNOTATED LIST OF REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
Allgood, Mary Brown. Demonstration Techniques. Prentice Hall, Inc., 1959.
A valuable comprehensive guide on the methodology of effective demonstrations. Discusses personal criteria of the demonstration, television techniques, and the teaching of demonstrations.
Brown, J. W.; Lewis, R. B.; and Harcleroad, F. F. Instructional Materials and Methods. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 1964. Chapter 14.
The use of and giving of demonstrations are discussed in an examplepacked chapter. Each area, values of, preparing for, guiding learning examples of and evaluation of demonstrations is provided. In addition, a list of selected readings is provided for further study.
Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture. A Leader's Guide to 4-H Demonstrations. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, January, 1975.
Excellent publication explaining the demonstration technique as applied to use in 4-H extension programs. The practical emphasis lends itself to vocational education. Stages, steps and evaluation make this a most useful reference.
Miller, Rex, and Culpeppar, Fred W., Jr. "How to Give Effective Demonstrations." Industrial Arts and Vocational Education Vol 60, No. 6 (September 1971): 24-25.
A very concisely written, two-page argicle presenting a rationale and method for giving demonstrations. Content deals with principles, methods, planning, timing, interest, stimulation, set up, and student participation for demonstrations. The only limitation of the article is that, for the beginner, sufficient "How To" is absent.
Morgan, Barton; Holmes, Glenn E; and Bundy, Clarence E. Methods in Adult Education. Danville, IL: The Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc. pp. 117-125.
Succinct in outlining advantages and limitations of the demonstration method. Presented in four steps: preparation by the leader, preparation of the observers, performing and clinching the results. An actual example illustrates the features outlined in the chapter. Page 20
Spitze, Hazel Taylor. Choosing Techniques for Teaching and Learning. Washington, DC: Home Economics Education Association, National Education Association, 1970. pp. 21-22.
Condensed overview of demonstrations as a simulation technique.
Prepare and implement a laboratory activity as an instructional strategy in
one area of vocational education.
Instructional Objective 4.1
The learner will explain, giving examples, the unique features of
Instructional Objective 4.2
The learner will identify steps for effective laboratory planning
Instructional Objective 4.3
The learner will identify different types of laboratories and modify each for use in one specific vocational area.
Instructional Objective 4.4
The learner will modify an existing laboratory plan to include the components of safety and special needs.
Instructional Objective 4.5
The learner will explain the unique features of evaluation methods used for laboratory activities and develop evaluation devices for respective laboratory experiences. Page 21
Prepare and implement a laboratory activity as an instructional strategy in
one area of vocational education.
Tom Fool and the Job School
Once upon a time there lived an unemployed man named Tom Fool.
very hard to get a job, but every time he applied for one he was told that he
needed training before he could be hired.
One day while waiting for a bus, Tom saw a sign on the fence near the bus
Next he was told that all the things he would need to prepare
for his new occupation would be delivered to his house.
The next day Tom received two boxes.
One contained a blue cap and pair
The other had two books, How to Become a House Painter,
Tom Fool began to learn about house painting.
He worked very hard at it.
Everyday he put on his cap and coveralls (they told him that this would make
him feel like a house painter--very important for his training), sat at his
desk and studied for his new job.
At the end of one month he graduated from
Job School as a house painter and was given a diploma to prove it.
Soon after his graduation Tom applied for a job as a house painter.
was dressed in his cap and coveralls and carried his diploma as proof of his
The following morning Tom Fool, house painter, reported to work with all
the knowledge on house painting he had gotten from the two volumes of How To
Become a House Painter, his coveralls and cap.
He was prepared for anything
This is, until his foreman asked him to open a can of paint-
or more than most people would have, but he was still not able to perform on the
The learner will explain, giving examples, the unique features of labora
tory, and identify the characteristics of an effective laboratory teacher.
Read the background material entitled "What is Laboratory?",
"How Does Involvement Teach?" and "What are the Character
what type of learning activities were given to the student,
what evaluation methods were used, and
how the characteristics of the teacher being observed
compare with the background material on an effective
shortcomings and the means for improving them, and what
What improvements could be made on what you observed in
Laboratory is an instructional strategy aimed at the practical application
It is an extension of the traditional classroom which allows
the student to understand concepts by relating them to practical situations.
It gives the learner the opportunity to work with proving hypotheses, thus
permitting first-hand experience for gaining knowledge.
a laboratory would have given him the chance to practice painting and to per
form some of the tasks performed by real house painters.
meaning into the ideas he found in his books and he would have been better
able to do the actual work.
Laboratory uses individualized instruction, job sheets and demonstration
techniques, etc., which require a high degree of direct student involvement.
Although involvement may also be possible in other strategies, the actual
hands-on experience that is offered in laboratory makes it unique.
How Does Involvement Teach?
Picture yourself sitting in a lecture hall listening to someone explain
how to draw a blood sample from a patient.
The lecturer is very thorough and
makes good use of visual aids to emphasize important points and specific
At the end of this lecture you have been told the problems you
might run into, the fine details of selecting a vein, and the way you should hold
Will you be able to successfully draw a sample from a patient?
The "think technique" developed by Professor Harold Hill in
The Music Man worked only because the cast of the play had professional musicians
in it; the technique is not an effective method for teaching a skill.
Now, imagine holding a syringe in your hand and feeling the arm of your
You are able to feel the texture of the skin, the size
and depth of the blood vessel.
You can see the apprehension in the face of your
These impressions cannot be taught by a lecturer, but experiencing them
interact with the task, to learn by doing, to develop a concrete rather than an
abstract experience background.
Involvement also stimulates interest and motivation.
for students to examine attitudes and values about the career they are preparing
for, especially those which are intangible.
Students have always worked for a
correct answer; it is a normal tendency to make the answer come out according to
what it is expected to be.
In the medical laboratory the outcomes of an assay
are unknown, and controls and standards are used to monitor the proper outcome of
If the control and standard values are not within their acceptable
ranges, the assay is invalid.
If only slightly out of range, is the assay still
Can the results be "juggled" into range so that the assay can be
Is the time involved worth the effort of repeating the assay?
Is it all right to manipulate the results when a patient's well being is at stake?
Is it all right to do it even if the patient is not concerned?
must be dealt with through involvement in the occupation and the attitudes that
They cannot be answered after a lecture on medical ethics.
student's feelings about them are more valuable, and this internalized reaction
can be more positively influenced through involvement with the real situation.
The key to the successful use of laboratory is the teacher.
teacher's planning and preparation for meaningful activities, the student can
What Are the Characteristics of an Effective Laboratory Teacher?
The instructor should have a high degree of competence for these activities
Students are more likely to learn if they have an
The teacher is this example and must have a good contemporary
basis of knowledge in the field, theoretical and practical. A rich store of Page 22
personal experiences from which the teacher can draw to make teaching more
meaningful is also helpful.
As a student, have you had the experience of
being taught by someone who was not confident about the subject? How did
that person answer questions about the subject?
out problems that might arise?
Could the person explain all phases of the
concept or principle so that you were able to understand?
The teacher who is knowledgeable about a subject area is better able to give
the student confidence in learning, and can make the student's background
experience more meaningful.
The laboratory teacher needs to be imaginative and innovative. Principles
and methods are constantly changing within the occupational field, and instruc
tors must continually expand and up-date their programs to keep abreast with
those changes. They must develop the means for increasing their availability
One instructor found that much time was spent going over the
steps for the operation of machinery in the laboratory. Although these pro
cedures had been explained to the entire class, each student needed individual
help with certain aspects.
To free the teacher from this, taped instructions
were developed which followed the principle of the "taped tour" used by many
museums, and "walked" the student through the operation of the machines.
example script of this procedure follows.)
Effective teachers must be thoroughly familiar with the equipment in
the laboratory. This will enable them to offer more meaningful demonstrations
They will also be able to utilize all equipment to their
maximum capacity. They should be able to perform minor repairs to insure
operability at all times, and to help cut down on operational costs.
In addition to all of this, teachers must be alert and sensitive to con
ditions in the laboratory, and should have the ability to manage inter-personal relationships. They must be able to monitor all activities with respect to
safety and proper utilization of materials and techniques. They need to move
freely through the facility to offer aid and comment as the need arises.
are instrumental in motivating the student and introducing new values and atti
For example, instructors in their conduct and attitude toward the occu
pation can influence the students' ideas about professionalism.
about neatness and organization within the laboratory, and if they follow this
with their performance of tasks in a neat and organized manner, they will demon
strate that this is actually possible.
If instructors insist that the students
maintain a neat and organized work area and believe that this will increase the
quality of their work, they will be able to initiate a basis for their feelings
of professionalism and pride in their future occupation.
SCRIPT FOR "WALKING TOUR" ON CHANGING RIBBON ON ELECTRIC TYPEWRITER
Changing the Ribbon of the Mickey Mouse Typewriter, Model Electric 3500
You should be sitting at a Mickey Mouse typewriter, Model Electric 3500.
you are not, please rewind this tape to the beginning and pick up a tape which is
for your type of machine.
Is the switch of your typewriter at the "off" position?
If it is not, please put it at the "off" position.
again). Do you have a new roll of ribbon?
If not, please turn off your tape
player and pick up a new roll from your instructor.
Be sure you ask for a ribbon
which will fit the Mickey Mouse, Model Electric 3500.
We are now ready to change the ribbon for our machine.
Remove the top cover by pulling it up.
(pause to give student time)
Wind the worn ribbon onto the left or right spool by turning it with your
Pull out the spool catch which is the metal piece which seems to be holding
the ribbon in place, remove the empty spool. (pause) (
Free the end of the ribbon from the hook and draw it out from the spool.
Set the ribbon color selector which is the small black lever to the right of
your tab key so it rests on red. (pause)
Press down on the shift lock key to expose the ribbon in the guides in
the center of the machine.
Disengage the ribbon from these guides.
Now, remove the spool of old ribbon.
Place the empty spool on the left spool shaft. (pause) ()
Place the new spool on the right shaft with the red part of the ribbon on
Be certain that the spool is solidly seated in its position.
should hear it snap into place.
If it does not snap, re-position it and try
Unwind ribbon from the back of the spool. (pause)
Hook the end of the unwound ribbon to the empty spool and wind several
turns until you are sure that the ribbon does not slip off the spool.
Hold the ribbon with both hands and put it into the guides at the center
Tighten the slack in the ribbon by turning the spool with your forefinger.
Replace the color selector to the black position.
Replace the shift lock to its original position.
Replace the top cover by allowing the two posts on each side of the
cover to fit tightly in the holes at the top of the machine.
Before you remove this tape from your tape player, please be sure
This procedure can be used for any number of operational
The pausing after each step should give the student enough
time to complete the operation, but it should not be so long as to make
the operation time consuming.
Realistic timing can be achieved if the
taping is done at the actual site with the instructor following the
steps at an unhurried pace.
The script should be field tested by
students to insure that all steps are covered and all terminology is
Instructional Objective 4.2
The learner will identify steps for effective laboratory planning and
formulate a model to implement an effective laboratory experience in a
Read background material, "What Goes Into the Planning of
the Laboratory Experience?"
Select an aspect of your vocational area which can be
effectively presented using the laboratory. Prepare your
plan giving objectives, activities, student participation
For the experience planned in Activity 4.2-b, design a
worksheet which includes purpose, materials needed,
operational steps and diagrams as needed, and questions
which will enable the student to draw conclusions about
What Goes Into the Planning of the Laboratory Experience ?
The laboratory facility must be planned to allow for optimum use and
It should also be planned with program objectives in mind.
Equipment should be installed for maximum efficiency, and materials must be easily
accessible and logically placed.
In this way the teacher can demonstrate that
organization is essential, thereby encouraging good work habits. Page 23
Because materials are such an important part of instruction, an inventory
must be kept to insure their availability during class time. Ordering of
supplies must be done regularly, and provision made for delivery well in advance
Planning is not confined to administrative matters, however.
must be sequenced to assure that instruction moves from the simple to complex.
You cannot sew a dress unless you are able to first sew a straight seam.
analysis should be made before this part of the planning to insure that all steps
Timing must also be taken into account.
The length of the experience must
be planned to assure that it is not fragmented and the student should be able to
complete the exercise in the time allotted.
Steps should be taken to minimize
the time taken for setting up and disassembling equipment, obtaining materials,
Time should be available for explaining pertinent points before
the activity and for discussing outcomes at the end of the experience.
Written directions, such as the example which follows, should be given to
the student to insure that all steps of the procedure are understood.
out should include a list of the material to be used, illustrations and directions
for clarification of specific operations, an explanation of the purposes of the
activity, and student objectives.
It can also incorporate questions and/or a
Summary sheet to be worked with upon completion of the activity.
mation should be distributed prior to the meeting time of the laboratory to allow
each student to familiarize himself with the agenda.
This will minimize the time
needed to explain the activity and allow more time for the actual work.
Procedures must be tried out prior to the time the student will work with
This will uncover safety features which must be mentioned and points where
problems might occur. This practice will also insure operability of equipment, availability of materials, and workability of projects. In addition, amounts of
supplies needed can be determined and distribution methods can be developed
If the written directions that are to be given the students
are used at this time, judgment can be made as to their clarity and logic.
Planning for the learning activity also involves knowing the types of
laboratory experience that can be offered the student.
Example for Learning Activity 4.2-a
Written directions give all steps to be followed for successful completion of a
To explain how to make straight cuts with straight, combination,
For mild steel 22 gage and lighter, use either straight
1 D. Kidd and G. Leighbody, Methods of Teaching Shop and Related Subjects, (Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers, 1955), p. 73.
NOTE: The snips should always be held at right angles to the sheet to be cut.
Cut the sheet by closing the blades just short of the full
NOTE: The length of each cut will be determined somewhat by the gage of the sheet.
Start the snips at the extreme end of the preceding cut.
Finish the cut, keeping the snips on the line by changing
Instructional Objective 4.3
The learner will identify different types of laboratories and modify each
for use in one specific vocational area.
Read the background material, "What Types of Laboratories
Modify a type of laboratory you have never used before to teach
a concept in your vocational field.
an experience and analyze the advantages and/or disadvantages
of using the different process.
What Types of Laboratories are There?
Experimentation and Skill Building
This is a form of laboratory used to verify or discover facts and to
The objectives of the experiment will determine the
"The student will show that metals melt at high temperatures
and determine the temperature at which iron melts,
or "The student will be able
to operate the smelter using proper safety equipment.
Often both objectives can
be combined and the experience can perform a dual purpose:
prepare wet mounts, using normal saline, 2% sodium chloride and distilled water
to demonstrate the susceptibility of red cells to their environment."
student verifies a physical property of the blood cell and practices the prepara
The teacher should state the purpose of the lesson and show its relation
to analyze the procedure and make conclusions about the experience.
Upon completion of the activity, the students write a report or complete
a summary sheet to record their findings.
Discussion of all outcomes allows for
evaluation of each student's results in comparison to peers.
The laboratory experience contains a combination of operations which
exist in the actual job, and provision should be made for the repetition of these
operations through other assignments to assure a high level of skill development. The student can be given the opportunity for learning by discovery in a
This can be done by allowing the student to conduct experi
mentation to verify a hypothesis.
This approach is thought to be extremely
challenging, but it is also more time consuming, and the instructor must plan
more carefully to insure that progress is made in the right direction.
example, students in agriculture might be asked to formulate and prove hypotheses
about environmental conditions on growth of plants.
In Industrial Education, a
learner might experiment with the composition of aggregates to determine
This type of laboratory is a modification of the small group production
process used in industry.
In its beginnings, mass production revolutionized
industry with its assembly line, but the worker had to pay for this with
physical and mental problems which resulted from job dissatisfaction.
this, automobile manufacturers developed a team approach to production, where
a team of workers is given complete responsibility for completion of major
In the classroom, Task Force Production offers a combination of technical,
managerial, and social roles with emphasis on the development of the student
Each individual, in a group of 3-5 students sharing
common production interests, works in all phases of management, planning, and
The student is introduced to the concept of task force production, the
principles of mass production, and the organization of industry.
student is involved in determining the product which will be created; each
becomes aware of the needs of the consumer.
Grouping of students by interest Page 24
in a product choice is the next step.
Management is shared by each group member,
and all phases of production are practiced--design, selection of materials,
At the end of the production period, each group reports
Each phase of production is reviewed, discussed and evalua
The end result is more than an acquisition of psychomotor skills.
includes development of group interaction and decision making ability as well as
a more intimate understanding of industry and production. The planning and
preparation for such a laboratory experience is time consuming, but the benefits
of the outcomes are well worth the effort.
Project Method in Distributive Education
This method coordinates classroom instruction with selected activities or
projects related to the individual occupational objectives of the student.
attempts to offer outcomes similar to those of cooperative education with more
control by the teacher as to the pace and nature of the experience.
Directed observations include such activities as viewing
selected films, attendance at trade shows, making customer calls with sales
representatives, and guided field trips. Analysis and evaluation uses case
studies, interviews and surveys, readings in trade journals, and comparing profit
views, and role playing to aid in decision making and problem solving.
Success of the project method depends on established criteria.
objectives must be set for each individual and activity, and adequate time must
be allotted to the student for participation in the activities.
each project is made using the Project Training Record, which follows.
2 Florida State Department of Education, The Project Plan for Distributive Education in Florida High School, Tallahassee, FL: Florida State Department of Education, 1967), p.
Instructional Objective 4.4
The learner will modify an existing laboratory plan to include the
components of safety and special needs.
Read background material, "What Else Should Be Known about
Laboratory?--Safety and Special Needs."
Using the laboratory plan prepared for Learning Activity
4.2-b, prepare a 1-2 page abstract describing the addition
of Safety and Special Needs.
What Else Should Be Known about Laboratory?
The laboratory attempts to bring the real life situation into the class
At times the classroom is transported to other locations, for example,
the use of a wheat field in agricultural education.
the type of equipment used, the varied materials in use and storage make
hazards inherent to this type of teaching. Therefore, it is vital that safety
practices be stressed throughout the program.
Safety features on equipment
should be explained and used. For example, acid resistant glasses and fire proof
aprons should be required for specific operations.
laboratory should be introduced early in the program.
Special equipment such as
fire blankets and eye baths should be conveniently located and conspicuously
labeled, and hazardous materials labeled as such.
active part in the safety program.
They should be involved in monitoring work
stations for safe practices and in testing preventative equipment to insure
This type of exposure will encourage good work habits in their
This strategy can offer individualized instruction to the student.
especially appropriate for use with students having special needs, as most
experiences can be easily modified to meet them.
For example, a student on
crutches can be situated at a work station at the end of a bench to allow more
The deaf student can be given written instructions that
include all the explanations, questions and answers which are brought up in
Also, the laboratory experience is ideal for the instruction of mentally
Instructional Objective 4.5
The learner will explain the unique features of evaluation methods used
for laboratory activities and develop evaluation devices for respective
Read the background material, "Evaluation Techniques."
Using the laboratory plan prepared for Learning Activity 4.2-b,
develop at least two (2) devices to evaluate the laboratory
As in other learning situations, the instructor must evaluate each
student. Although evaluation practices used in other areas can also be utilized here, the basis of the laboratory experience is practical application, and this
should be reflected in testing and grading methods.
One type of evaluation is the performance test.
It can be used to measure
accuracy, speed, ability to plan the work, acquisition of a skill and confidence
related to the occupational area being tested but unfamiliar to the student can
be used to test the ability to plan work, the acquisition of skills, confidence
in the use of tools and equipment and good work habits, if the operations
involved in its completion have been previously taught.
carried out as a laboratory session, and all planning steps carried out to insure
its successful execution.
Conditions for each student should be as nearly identi
If specific operations are to be tested, the instructor must
observe the student at work.
The scoring system for this type of evaluation should be carefully planned.
The standards for the end product should be carefully outlined.
skills must meet a given level of acceptance.
A possible method of rating is
the use of a scaled checklist,
such as the example which follows. Page 25
Example for Learning Activity 4.5-a:
3 The Descriptive Form of Rating Scale
Pupils in carpentry are being tested in their ability to install a mortise lock in an inside door. The rating, 4, 18 the minimum which will be approved.
Door catch must spring into catch plate easily and quickly when door is closed.
The bolt must turn into place easily and without excessive
Lock and catch plate must fit snugly in openings for them.
Lock and catch plate must be reasonably flush with wood
Plate edges must be parallel to edge of door as measured with rule.
Proper care must be given tools while working.
Standards for 3 and 4 must be met and in addition:
Lock and catch plate must be exactly flush with wood surfaces
Screws must be driven exactly perpendicular to plates and seat
There may be no burrs on screw slots caused by screwdriver.
Standards for 2, 3, and 4 must be met and in addition no tool marks may be visible around edges of openings provided for lock or catch plate.
3
The understanding of working principles and operations can also be
measured by using pertinent questions in these areas.
If an unfamiliar procedure
is used, the student can be questioned on principles which are similar to those
already learned; transfer of knowledge is measured in this manner.
pertaining to outcomes can be related to understanding the workings of procedures
This process can be used independently or in combination with
Another type of test is the practical examination, which differs from the
performance test in that it does not use only one complete procedure with a
It can evaluate the student's ability to perform a single
operation, identify objects, analyze a situation or evaluate alternatives.
procedure for planning this type of examination begins with knowing exactly what
is to be measured, and those operations which will measure them.
if the ability to read information from a chart or graph is to be evaluated, a
the student moves from station to station, in a given sequence, and with a set
If the time limit is 4 minutes per station, all students
move at four minute intervals.
Scoring of this type of examination is similar
to that of conventional tests.
It is necessary to insure that each task or
operation can be completed in the time limit, and that all students are aware
of the sequence and procedure of the test.
Evaluation should involve testing by objectives.
program should be reflected in those of the exercises, and these should be used
as the basis of the testing situation.
ANNOTATED LIST OF REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
Bollinger, E., and Weaver, G. Trade Analysis and Course Organization. New York: Pitman Publishing Co., 1955.
Describes the methods for trade (occupational) analysis and in this way determines the operations of each occupation. Gives criteria for selection of teaching jobs as a vehicle for instruction. Provides methods for organizing the instructional sequence and the instruction sheets handed out to the students.
Drawbaugh, C., and Hull, W. Agricultural Education: Approaches to Learning and Teaching. Columbus, OH: C. Merrill Publishing Co., 1971.
A section about school laboratory instruction, pp. 141-161, describes the various types of labs existing in Agriculture Education, such as demonstration, the Experimental-Discovery Method, the Project Method, Simulation, Practice and Drill and Realism. Very extended and detailed approach to the subject.
Florida State Department of Education. Education in Florida High Schools.
The Project Plan for Distributive Tallahassee, FL: State Department
Educational Foundations of the Project Method in Distributive Education, Curriculum Planning, Categories of Projects and samples of various projects that can be used in Distributive Education.
The chapter on Learning Experiences is divided into two parts: demonstration, and laboratory activities by the students. Discusses planning, executing the plan and evaluating.
Kidd, D., and Leighbody, G. Methods of Teaching Shop and Related Subjects. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers, 1955.
Theory of teaching and learning, methods of presenting and helping
Marks, M. "The Project Method in Action." Paper presented at the meeting of the National Association of Distributive Education Teachers, Miami, FL, December 9, 1965.
An analysis of the characteristics of the project method in D.E.
Means, R. C. Methodology in Education. Publishing Co., 1968.
As a part of a survey of instructional methods in pages 46-49,
McClosky, Mildred G. ed. Teaching Strategies and classroom Realities. Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1971.
Reports written by new teachers. One by Smith involved the methods in which planning took place. Stimulating, good art work, worth considering if laboratory is a strategy you would like to try.
Modern School Shop Planning. 1973.
Prakken Publications, Inc.,
Considerations for effective school shop planning: housekeeping, safety.
Oaks, M., and Weiking, B. "Task Force Production." Paper presented at American Industrial Arts Association Conference, Seattle, WA, April 1974.
A speech presenting the features of Task Force Production as Page 26
Describe and demonstrate a variety of questioning techniques.
Instructional Objective 5.1
The learner will describe questioning as an instructional strategy and will distinguish between convergent, divergent, and evaluative questions.
Instructional Objective 5.2
Given a video tape in which the same lesson is demonstrated via two different questioning sequences (one episode showing convergent questioning patterns, the other divergent patterns), the learner will tabulate the teacher and student behaviors and draw generalizations based on the results.
Instructional Objective 5.3
The learner will demonstrate comprehension of questioning techniques (framing, handling incorrect responses, encouraging non-volunteers) by correctly answering formative quiz items.
Instructional Objective 5.4
The learner will demonstrate the use of questioning techniques with
Describe and demonstrate a variety of questioning techniques.
Instructional Objective 5.1
The learner will describe questioning as an instructional strategy
and will distinguish between convergent, divergent, and evaluative
Read the following definition of questioning as an instruc
tional strategy, and the characteristics of a poor question.
As children we start to question almost as soon as we learn to talk;
we are curious about everything, so we ask what? why? where? when?
Throughout our lives asking questions serves as a primary motivator of
learning. Therefore, one of the most important skills for the teacher
and the curriculum specialist to learn is effective questioning.
Questioning can be defined as a method of instruction based on the
use of questions to be answered by the student.
Questioning is a dynamic process.
It is useful art or tool, and
in the hands of a skillful teacher, serves numerous learning purposes.
Good questions stimulate and encourage students to question themselves,
other students, and the teacher.
Good questions act as a sounding board
against which the correctness or acceptability of ideas may be tested, they
promote the aims of the lesson in a concise manner, and encourage discussion. Questions may be asked to:
elicit simple recall, compare and contrast,
choose alternatives, classify, illustrate or give examples, or present a
Other types may ask the students to describe, explain, outline, or
organize ideas in one of several ways.
Many lessons could be vastly more stimulating and worthwhile learning
experiences if a teacher would use a variety of effective questions and
often detect poor questions, faulty terminology, or other flaws if you see and
The most commonly found poor questions have even been given titles.
of these stand out as really ineffective and should be avoided.
The Guessing Question. The student is asked to supply an answer
Do you think more people own red or blue cars today?
Indefinite Question. The student is presented with a question
What's the stock market all about?
The Ambiguous Question. Students are presented with a question
What do you like about that advertisement?
The Echo Question. The question involves the repetition of one or two key words of the question.
The answer to Harriet's second question is four.
The Double Question. The student is asked to answer two or more
What are seven food groups and what nutrients do they provide?
What is the stomach and how does it work? |
What term best describes the written description of the objectives to be achieved in a project?
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