 The Navy is known for its deep seated traditions. Muster for noon formation at the Naval Academy, ship launching and commissioning in the harbors, Navy certificates marking rites of passage and many many more. Beyond their formal purpose of bringing women and men together as a unit, these traditions often have even deeper meanings. Navy and Marine Corps morning colors is one of them. A tradition that is both regular and extraordinary, it’s a daily ceremony wherein the colors (the national ensign or flag) are raised at exactly 8:00 am, and “To the Colors” or “National Anthem” is played by the Navy band (usually “To the Colors” or the national anthem). Morning colors not only gives both participants and viewers the chance to pause and reflect on the meaning of the flag raising, but also to think deeply about the women and men who sacrificed their lives and those who continue to do so today to protect our shores from harm. It is a moment of deep gratitude and awe for all. How The Morning Colors StartedThis moving tradition has deep roots. The Royal Navy National Archives tells us that this morning ritual of raising the colors hearkens back to 1797, when Admiral Lord St. Vincent started the tradition of raising and lowering the ensign and jack with the guard of the day and a small band, right after the 1797 mutinies at Spithead. It was in 1843 that the U.S. Navy first adopted the British tradition of both morning and evening colors. The 1843 Rules and Regulations for the Government of the Navy provided these requirements: If sunset were after 6:00 p.m. morning colors would be at 8:00 a.m; otherwise, the colors would start at 9:00 a.m.. This was updated in the 1870s, when the time for morning colors was definitively moved to 8:00 a.m. For all else, the Navy follows the requirements in Article 1206 of Navy Regulations, which states that the ceremony be performed on all ships that are not underway and at all shore stations of the Navy and Marine Corps. Even though many guards don’t have buglers or bands, the ceremony is undertaken with quiet solemnity and respect. Morning Colors on the YardToday on the Yard, you can watch the morning colors at 8:00 am every day in T-Court. There is an introduction at 7:55 am when “First Call to Colors” is sounded. Then, a bugle calls “Attention” at precisely 8:00 am and the flag detail hoists the colors - the American flag. Whether a bugle or band plays “To the Colors” or the National Anthem, all military members and civilians within sight or hearing distance must pay their respects. They will immediately stop what they are doing when they hear the ceremony begin. If they are covered and dressed in uniform, it is expected that they render a salute; if not they may simply stand at attention. They must also face the flag, but if that is not visible from where they are standing, they can face the music instead. Upon the completion of the song, those saluting must cut their salute, and the command is given by the bugle sound, “Carry on.” A similar ceremony is performed in the evening for colors at sunset. One important difference is the speed with which the flag is moved. In the morning, it’s hoisted quickly, as if to symbolize the start of a new day. In the evening, a slow motion closes out the evening and provides even more time for reflection. Morning Colors Beyond the YardThe time for reflection is sacred. Whether on bases, at the Naval Academy, or while deployed, morning colors are a constant across the Navy and Marine Corps branches. At Naval Base Coronado, one mom was proud to see her children stop jumping on their trampoline when they heard morning colors. They held their hands over their hearts as they stood in silence facing the sounds of the bugle. Previously at a U.S. Marine Corps base in Afghanistan, the ceremony included the raising of the Afghan flag, to symbolize the partnership of the two countries. No matter where it's performed, morning colors commands the same rapt attention and reverence. Military members immediately stop what they’re doing, face the flag, snap to attention and salute. It’s an incredibly moving tribute. Traditions like these form a bridge from the past to the present, honoring those who have gone before in defense of our country, and continuing their important legacy. They are a source of routine and comfort to the far flung bases, and a solid connection to U.S. soil. At the Naval Academy, morning and evening colors are daily lessons in honoring and respecting traditions, as well as an introduction to the Navy and Marine Corps ceremonies that are so critical to their unity. You can visit and see the morning colors when you spend time at the Yard. Come and experience this important bit of Naval Academy history and feel its power. When you visit the Yard, you’re supporting the Brigade of Midshipmen, since every bit you spend here goes back to them. Be a part of USNA tradition. Page 2
Figure 4-16.—The United States national ensign.
When not under way, commissioned ships display the ensign from the flagstaff at the stern and the union jack from the jack staff at the bow from 0800 to sunset. While under way, the ensign is normally flown from the gaff. In ships having more than one mast, the gaff is usually positioned on the aftermast. In ships equipped with two macks (combination masts and stacks), the location of the flag depends on which mast is configured to accept halyards or a gaff.
If a band or recorded music is available for the colors ceremony, “Attention” is sounded, followed by the national anthem. At morning colors, the ensign is hoisted when the music begins. It is smartly hoisted to the top of the flagstaff. Remember, a furled (folded) ensign is never hoisted to the top of the flagstaff or gaff. At evening colors, lowering of the ensign also begins at the start of the music and is so regulated as to be completely lowered at the last note of the music. “Carry On” is sounded at the completion of the music. The national flag is always hoisted smartly and lowered ceremoniously. If a band or music is not available for colors, “To the Colors” is played on a bugle at morning colors, and “Retreat” is played at evening colors. For ships having no band, music, or bugler, “Attention” and “Carry On” are signals for rendering and terminating the hand salute. Sometimes the music for colors from another U.S. ship can be overheard aboard your ship. When this happens and no band, music, or bugler is aboard your ship, the command “Carry On” should not be given until the music being overheard is completed. If foreign warships are present, the national anthem of each country represented is played after morning colors. If your ship is visiting a foreign port, the national anthem of that country is played immediately following morning colors, followed by the national anthems of any other foreign nations represented.
When a U.S. naval ship enters a foreign port during darkness, at first light it briefly displays its colors on the gaff to make known its nationality. Other ships of war that are present customarily display their colors in return.
Our national ensign, along with the union jack, is referred to as colors. At commands ashore and on U.S. naval ships not under way, the ceremonial hoisting and lowering of the national flag at 0800 and sunset is known as morning and evening colors.
When the national ensign is hoisted and lowered or half-masted for any occasion, the motions of the senior Page 3
There are times during the year that the ensign is flown at half-mast, or half-staff ashore. This is the internationally recognized symbol of mourning. Normally, the flag is half-masted on receiving information of the death of one of the officials or officers listed in U.S. Navy Regulations. Notification may be through the news media or by official message. The United States honors its war dead on Memorial Day by flying the flag at half-mast from 0800 until the last gun of a 21-minute gun salute that begins at noon (or until 1220 if no gun salute is rendered). If the ensign is flown from the flagstaff and is half-masted, the union jack is also half-masted. In half-masting the national ensign, it will, if not already hoisted, first be hoisted to the peak and then lowered to the half-mast position. Before lowering from the half-mast position, the ensign is hoisted to the peak, then lowered ceremoniously. Distinctive marks, such as commission or command pennants, are not half-masted except when the ship's commanding officer or the unit commander dies. U.S. Navy Regulations stipulates that when any ship under United States registry or the registry of a nation formally recognized by the United States salutes a U.S. Navy ship by dipping its flag (hauled halfway down and then raised), the courtesy is to be returned dip for dip. A U.S. Navy ship never dips to a foreign ship (flag) first. U.S. naval ships (USNS) of the Military Sealift Command do not dip the national ensign to Navy ships since they are public ships of the United States. Formal recognition of a foreign country does not mean that diplomatic relations must exist. The fact that diplomatic relations have been severed does not mean that the United States no longer recognizes the existence of the state or the government concerned. However, the United States does not return the dip to countries such as Albania, North Korea, Vietnam, and South Yemen. If in doubt, ask the duty Signalman.
When a naval ship is in port or at anchor, the union jack is flown from the jackstaff from 0800 to sunset. In addition to flying from the jackstaff, the union jack is hoisted at the yardarm to indicate that a general court-martial or a court of inquiry is in session.
The union jack is flown in boats as follows:
1. When a diplomatic official of the United States, at or above the rank of charge d'affaires, is embarked in a boat of the U.S. Navy and is within the waters of the country which that person represents
2. When a governor general, or a governor commissioned as such by the President, is embarked in a boat in an official capacity and the boat is within the governor's area of jurisdiction (for example, the Governor of the Virgin Islands)
When displayed from the jackstaff, the union jack is half-masted if the national ensign is half-masted. It is raised and lowered in the same manner as the national ensign. The union jack is not dipped when the national ensign is dipped.
The union jack is the rectangular blue part of the United States flag containing the stars. It is shown in figure 4-18. It symbolizes the union of the states of the United States. Each star represents a state.
The union jack is issued in several sizes; but, when flown at the jack staff, it must be the same size as the union of the ensign flown at the flagstaff. To make sure it is not flown upside down, always have the single point of the stars pointing toward the sky.
the after truck of a naval vessel and at the highest and most conspicuous point of hoist on a fixed mastless ship (submarines in particular). It is also flown from the bow of a boat when a commanding officer, not entitled to a personal flag, is embarked on an official visit.
On 24 April 1959, the President, on the recommendation of the Secretary of the Navy, established an official flag for the United States Navy. That was done to fulfill a need for an official flag to represent the Navy in displays and on a variety of occasions, such as ceremonies and parades. Figure 4-19 shows the Navy flag.
Figure 4-20.-Commission pennant.
The commission pennant is not a personal flag, but sometimes it is regarded as the personal symbol of the commanding officer. Along with the ensign and union jack, it is half-masted upon the death of the commanding officer of a ship. The Red Cross (Geneva Convention) flag, shown in figure 4-21, is the distinctive mark flown from the after truck of a commissioned hospital ship of the Navy. In general, the Red Cross flag is regarded as an international guarantee of amnesty from attack. None of the military services, however, fly it on the same halyard as the national ensign. Boats engaged in sanitary service and landing party hospital boats display the Red Cross flag in the bow.
Figure 4-19.—U.S. Navy flag.
The U.S. Navy flag represents the Navy as follows:
• In displays during official Navy occasions
• At public gatherings when the Navy is an official participant
BMRF0421 Figure 4-21. Red Cross flag.
On other occasions as may be authorized by the Secretary of the Navy When used for the purposes listed above, the Navy flag accompanies, and takes the place of honor after, the national flag. However, when other branches of the armed forces are participating, the flags take precedence in the order of seniority of the services represented.
PERSONAL FLAGS AND PENNANTS
Some nations in the Middle East regard the cross as a symbol contrary to their religious beliefs. Therefore, they use a design such as a red crescent on a white field or a red lion and sun on a white field to indicate a mission of mercy or amnesty from attack. No flag or pennant may be flown above or, if on the same level, to the right of our national flag. One exception is the display of flags at the United Nations headquarters, where special rules apply. The only other
Every Navy ship in commission flies the commission pennant except when it is replaced by a personal flag, command pennant, or Red Cross flag. The commission pennant, shown in figure 4-20, is flown at
exception is during church services aboard ship conducted by Navy chaplains or visiting church dignitaries. Then the church pennant (fig. 4-22) or the Jewish worship pennant (fig. 4-23) is flown above the ensign. Many ships are fitted with two halyards to the same point of hoist at both the staff and gaff to permit display of the church pennant and ensign simultaneously.
the Navy in 1975. The same rules governing the display of the church pennant apply to the display of the Jewish worship pennant. The flag of the Chief of Naval Operations (fig. 4-24) is a blue and white rectangle, divided diagonally from lower hoist to upper fly. In its center is the official seal of the Chief of Naval Operations—an eagle clutching an anchor and encircled by 50 gold links of chain. The CNO's flag is displayed in the same manner as required for displaying flags of any flag officer.
Figure 4-22.-Church pennant.
Figure 4-24.—Chief of Naval Operations flag.
Aboard ships under way, the church pennant is displayed by hoisting it to the peak or truck and then dipping the ensign just clear of it. If services are being conducted at the time of morning colors aboard ships not under way, the ensign is hoisted to the top of the flagstaff at the prescribed time. The church pennant is then hoisted and the ensign dipped just clear of the pennant. If the ensign is half-masted, the church pennant is hoisted just above the ensign. When the church pennant is lowered, the ensign is closed up (hoisted to the truck, peak, or top of the flagstaff) before the pennant is lowered. Although the church pennant may not be flown above the national flag ashore, it may be displayed separately.
Aboard ships not under way, the absence (for a period of 72 hours or less) of various officers is indicated by the display of SUBSTITUTE pennants. These are general signal pennants. The pennants are assigned as shown in figure 4-25.
While standing watch, you will have many duties. One of them is to make sure special flags or pennants are displayed as required to indicate changing events aboard ship. Usually on a large ship, this is the responsibility of the duty signalman. On small ships, such as submarines, it is the duty of the topside watch (POOW). These flags or pennants are important because they tell other units what is happening within their area at any given time. A list of special flags and pennants is normally posted within the quarterdeck area for the ready reference of watch standers.
There are many more flags and pennants that have special meanings. You will have to know the meaning of some of these. They are called general signals, and those not previously discussed are shown in figure 4-27.
A flag officer's flag is never displayed simultaneously from more than one ship. It is flown at the main-truck of the ship the officer is aboard. Normally, no personal flag or pennant is shown at the same masthead with the national ensign. When a double display is required, the personal flag or pennant should
When flag officers of the Navy (admiral, vice admiral, rear admiral [upper half], rear admiral [lower half]) assume command of a fleet or a unit of a fleet, their personal flag (fig. 4-28) is hoisted and kept flying until they turn over their command to their successor. If the officer is absent from command for a period exceeding 72 hours, the flag is hauled down until the officer returns.
Figure 4-28.—Personal flags. Page 4
d. Worship service(s) in progress. e. The captain is absent.
Q3. In port, commissioned ships display the national ensign and the union jack from what locations?
Side honors, rendered to officers and officials boarding and departing the ship, are part of the honors stipulated for an official visit. The honors consist of parading the proper number of side boys and piping the side by the honors boatswain's mate. Officers appropriate to the occasion also attend the side. Side boys are not paraded on Sunday or on other days between sunset and 0800 or during meal hours of the crew, general drills and evolutions, and periods of regular overhaul, except in honor of civil officials and foreign officers; then they may be paraded at any time during daylight hours. Side boys are paraded only for scheduled (official) visits.
The term official means a formal visit of courtesy requiring special honors and ceremonies. An informal visit of courtesy requiring no special ceremonies is a call.
• The visitor, if entitled to 11 guns or more, is invited to inspect the guard upon completion of the gun salute or such other honors as may be accorded.
HONORS FOR OFFICIAL VISITS
On departure, the honors prescribed for an official visit are as follows:
The honors specified for an official visit are rendered on arrival as follows:
• When the rail is manned, personnel are spaced uniformly at the rail on each weather deck, facing outboard. The command "Attention” is sounded as the visitor's boat or vehicle approaches the ship.
• If a gun salute is prescribed on arrival, it is fired as the visitor approaches and is still clear of the side. The proper flag or pennant is broken on the first gun and hauled down on the last gun except when it is to be flown for the duration of the visit. Other ships firing a concurrent salute also haul down, on the last gun, the flag or pennant displayed in honor of the visitor.
1. The rail is manned, if required. 2. The command "Attention” is sounded as the visitor arrives on the quarterdeck. 3. When the visitor is ready to leave the ship, the guard presents arms, all persons on the quarterdeck salute, and ruffles and flourishes, followed by music, is sounded. The visitor then is piped over the side. The salute and present arms terminate with the call. If no gun salute is fired, the flag or pennant displayed in honor of the visitor is hauled down. 4. The boat or vehicle is piped away from the side. 5. If a gun salute is directed upon departure, it is fired when the visitor is clear of the side. If a flag or pennant is displayed in honor of the visitor, it is hauled down with the last gun of the salute.
If the ship visited is moored to the pier in such a position that it is impractical to render the gun salute before arrival on board, the salute is rendered (provided local regulations don't forbid gun salutes) after the official arrives on board and the commanding officer is sure that the dignitary and party are moved to a position in the ship that is well clear of the saluting battery.
When possible, the same honors and ceremonies are rendered for an official visit to a naval station.
• The boat or vehicle is piped as it comes alongside.
• The visitor is piped over the side, and all persons on the quarterdeck salute and the guard presents arms until the termination of the pipe, flourishes, music, or gun salute, depending on which is rendered last.
When required for attending the side, the required number of side boys will be on deck in the uniform of the day. Side boys are mustered, inspected, and instructed in their duties by the OOD and BMOW. They are stationed on either side of the route across the quarterdeck taken by arriving and departing high-ranking officers or civilian officials who are making official calls to the ship. When the side is piped by the BMOW on the boatswain's pipe, from two to eight side boys, depending on the rank of the honored official, will form a passageway to or from the gangway. They salute on the first note of the pipe and drop the salute together on the last note.80
• If the gun salute is not prescribed on arrival and a flag or pennant is to be displayed during the visit, it is broken at the start of the pipe.
• The piping of the side, the ruffles and flourishes, and the music are executed in the order named. In the absence of a band, “To the Colors” is sounded on the bugle, instead of the national anthem, when required.
Side boys must be particularly smart in appearance and groomed with polished shoes and immaculate uniforms. Enlisted women detailed to this duty are also called side boys.
c. Don't paraphrase messages; repeat them word for word
A2. Within the IVCS, the ICSC acts like a
d. Speak slowly e. In an emergency, speak calmly and precisely Page 5
These changes didn't happen overnight; they required long periods of trial and error. But in the 1840s, new ideas were being explored by their proponents. On September 5, 1843, the Navy's first successful steamship, the USS Princeton, was launched. Its new type of propeller eliminated the vulnerable paddle wheels and permitted the ship's engines to be placed below decks in protected spaces. Other actions between 1815 and the Civil War included the following:
• The Navy took the first steps in Antarctic exploration. Notably, Lieutenant Charles Wilkes visited the subpolar region in January 1840 and proved conclusively that the icy land was, in fact, a continent.
From 1815 to 1840, the Navy continued to expand its sailing fleet. In fact, more than 74 ships-of-the-line were built. In 1837 the Navy launched the 3,104-ton USS Pennsylvania, the largest of America's ships-of-the-line. In 1841, the Navy launched the USS Missouri and the USS Mississippi. These were our first ocean-going, steam-driven capital ships. At the same time the US Navy was building bigger ships, it was developing steam powered ships and iron clad ships. At the same time it was harnessing steam power for ship propulsion, the Navy was making advances in ship construction. The Navy began making its ships with iron instead of wooden hulls. In 1843, the Navy launched its first iron-hulled warship—the paddle sloop USS Michigan. This side-wheeler was 163 feet long and displaced 685 tons. It was powered by a 170-horsepower, two-cylinder, steam engine. Without using its sails, the USS Michigan was capable of making 8 knots. Through the efforts of farseeing men like Commander Matthew Calbraith Perry, USN, the Navy was becoming more steam conscious. Perry is referred to as the “Father of the Steam Navy.” He was enthusiastic about the possibilities of steam, and was in charge of construction and in command of the Navy's second steam frigate the USS Fulton. The harnessing of steam power was considered the most important naval development since the cannon. The newly built steamships posed problems if engaged in battle. Their paddle wheels and steam engines could be easily damaged by enemy fire. This problem was fixed by changing the design of the ships so that the paddle-wheel housing was enclosed behind 5-foot-thick walls and set in an inboard channelway.
• Following Texas' admission to the U.S. as the 28th state, Mexican troops crossed the Rio Grande. War broke out. The Mexican-American War was primarily a land war. However, the Navy did get involved. It blockaded port cities in the Gulf and provided protective action by the “Mosquito Fleet" during the first large-scale amphibious operation in U.S. military history—the landing of some 10,000 U.S. troops at Vera Cruz. (The Navy itself was not equipped to carry out such an operation at that time.) Marines were also involved in this war—they marched with Scott to Mexico City, coining the phrase “...from the halls of Montezuma...” in the famed Marines' song.
• The Navy was involved in diplomatic relations. Commodore Matthew C. Perry signed a treaty with Japan on March 31, 1854. This was the treaty that opened Japan's ports to American trade and provisioning of ships. England and Russia soon followed with their own treaties, all modeled after Perry's. Page 6
David D. Porter (son of the captain of the Essex), who commanded the mortar flotilla in the capture of New Orleans
Alfred T. Mahan (fig. 5-7) was one of the first instructors at the Naval War College, and he influenced naval strategy. In 1890, the first of his many books and articles on sea power was published. One of his books (The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660 - 1783) stressed that without control of the seas, a nation at war could not expect victory. He defined sea power; showed the importance of understanding naval needs; and advocated a large, powerful Navy capable of assembling an overwhelming force to defeat the enemy's Navy. His books on sea power became the “bible” of many navies, and for many years, they influenced the thinking of naval strategists. Part of our Navy's readiness for the war with Spain was a result of the influence of his works.
framing to reinforce ships so that they could be used to ram their opponents as well as fire on them. It was several years before an economical way to process iron strong enough for the entire construction could be found. (Wooden ships had the advantage of being cheaper to build than iron ships.) After the Civil War, the Navy began a drawdown period. A year and a half after the war, the total number of Navy ships was 236, with only 56 in active service. World conditions made our Country aware that the Navy was small. Therefore, in 1882 and 1883, Congress authorized the construction of the “protected cruisers” USS Atlanta, USS Boston, and USS Chicago and the dispatch boat USS Dolphin, which had both masts for sails and stacks for smoke. They were steel hulled and signaled the end of the ironclads introduced only 40 years earlier. These new cruisers were in the 13- to 14-knot class. They sported new guns, new types of turrets, and armor. Once more, the Navy began to rebuild its strength. Continued changes were made as the new steel Navy took on new shapes. Still clinging to the past, the USS Newark, a 4,098-ton protected cruiser, was the last of the Navy's warships to be fitted with sails. It was launched in 1890 and commissioned the following year. Because of its many improvements, the USS Newark has been labeled as the first modern cruiser in the U.S. Fleet. With the development of the self-propelled torpedo, long-range torpedo boats made their debut. In 1890, one of the first torpedo boats joined the fleet—the 22.5-knot USS Cushing. The Navy acquired 16 fast torpedo boats and three 185-ton boats capable of speeds of 27 knots. The development of torpedo boats caused the shape of ships to change. An example was the USS Truxtun, which led to the design of our present-day destroyers. These ships were designed to combat torpedo boats. Later improvements resulted in destroyers themselves carrying torpedoes.
Since surface ships were driven by steam, why not submarines? Steam requires air, fire, and heat, and those were in limited supply aboard a submarine. During the 19th century, the internal combustion engine was developed. Use of this engine on ships had drawbacks.
Shipbuilders used iron first as framing and then as a material for the entire ship. Iron was first used as
However, many of its problems were overcome by two inventors—John Holland and Simon Lake. Holland and Lake had opposite theories about the submarine.
the USS Holland had to surface to permit the crew to look out the conning tower; causing it to lose its greatest advantage—surprise. Lake and a professor from Johns Hopkins University worked out a design for the periscope. The periscope, with various improvements, remained the submarine's basic visual aid until 1958.
• Holland thought submersion should be made by power-diving, using the force of the propeller and the angle of the bow planes.
• Lake said boats should descend on an even keel with slight negative buoyancy. Lake was more interested in underwater exploration than naval warfare. He thought a submarine could be equipped with wheels and driven along the ocean's floor, although he did not pursue that idea. Holland was more practical; his design included a workable torpedo tube, which Lake's did not. Holland received a $150,000 contract from the Navy for a subsurface vessel. His first attempt failed, but the Navy was impressed enough to award him another contract. By 1898, he had built USS Holland, a cigar-shaped craft, 52 feet long and 10 feet in diameter. The USS Holland was equipped with a gasoline engine for surface power and generators that charged batteries for underwater power. It was armed with a torpedo tube that fired an 18-inch torpedo and a bow gun recessed into the hull. A New York newspaper commented that "...the offensive powers of the Holland are, considering the size and method of attack, far greater than any other engine of war." The submarine’s problem of running blind when submerged was corrected after Simon Lake experimented with a set of prisms and lenses. Before that,
At the end of the 19th century, the United States and Spain became involved in diplomatic disputes about Cuban independence, trade, and U.S. citizens living there. On the evening of February 15, 1898, a terrific explosion suddenly tore through the battleship USS Maine at anchor in Cuba's Havana harbor. The explosion killed 250 American Sailors. The explosion was a major reason for the start of the Spanish-American War... Remember the Maine became our battle cry. One event stood out in this short war—Commodore George Dewey's seizure of Manila Bay in the Philippines. On May 1, 1898, he steamed into Manila Bay and ordered, “You may fire when you are ready, Gridley.” Dewey's resounding victory destroyed Spain's naval power in the East and was instrumental in quickly ending the war. Shortly after the Battle of Manila Bay (fig. 5-8), U.S. naval forces at Cuba cornered the Spanish Atlantic Squadron at Santiago Bay. On the morning of July 3, 1898, the Spanish squadron tried to break out of the bay and was completely destroyed. Cuba and Puerto Rico fell shortly afterwards, effectively ending the war.
Q2. After the development of the ironclad, what was the Confederate Navy's next achievement?
The Navy continued to experiment with the development of submarines throughout the next decade. One of the main problems continued to be the gasoline engine—it heated up and gave off fumes that overcame many of the crew. The gasoline engine was replaced by the diesel engine. The first diesel engines were installed in the USS Skipjack (SS 24) and the USS Sturgeon (SS 25). These new engines required no complicated ignition or sparking systems, produced fewer fumes, and were cheaper to operate. The diesel engine and electric battery remained as the main propulsion systems for submarines until nuclear power emerged in the 1950s.
Q3. During the Civil War, the U.S. Navy's first admiral gave the famous order, “Damn the torpedoes! Full speed ahead.” List the admiral's name and battle where he gave the order.
One such man was Navy Captain Washington Irving Chambers, the U.S. Navy's first officer in charge of aviation. Captain Chambers’ initial involvement was to answer letters from air-minded citizens and observe and report on aviation developments of particular concern to the Navy. What started as a collateral duty soon was a full-time job, and Chambers became a strong supporter of those who wanted to see the sea service add an air arm.
By 1895, the heavy elements of the U.S. Fleet consisted of 15 steel cruisers, the heavy cruiser USS New York, and three battleships. The first two battleships were the USS Texas, commissioned on August 15, 1895, and the USS Maine, commissioned on September 17, 1895. Both were listed as “second-class” battleships. The third ship, the USS Indiana (BB 1), was commissioned in 1895. It was our first “first-class” battleship. In 1906, the United States began a large battleship-building program. Five battleships were of the same class as the USS New Mexico and USS Colorado; however, they weren't completed until after World War I. Based on lessons learned from wartime experiences, many improvements were incorporated into their design. For example, battleships of the same class as the USS Colorado were the first ones equipped with 16-inch guns.
In April 1911, the Office of Aviation in Washington, D.C., consisted of only Captain Chambers. In May, he wrote requisitions for two machines made of wood, canvas, bamboo, rubber, and metal—two airplanes, the A-1 and the A-2. Earlier in the year, a civilian, Eugene Ely, had successfully taken off from and later landed a biplane on a platform rigged aboard USS Pennsylvania (ACR 4), demonstrating the practical use of naval aircraft.
Shortly thereafter, the Navy accepted delivery of its first airplane, the A-1. The A-1 was first flown by Lieutenant T. G. Ellyson, the Navy's first aviator. The A-1 was followed by the A-2; naval aviation had gotten off the ground.
As the 19th century drew to a close, the Wright brothers were working on their flying craft. The Wright brothers' first flights at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, began the vision of the future. Most people thought of flying as a stunt or a sport, while others talked about crossing the ocean by airplane. One European wrote in part, ...flights over the ocean will be made possible by a new type of ship... [its] deck will be clear of all obstacles, flat and wide as possible ... [it will] have the aspect of a landing field...its speed shall equal that of a cruiser...housing of planes will be arranged below deck and planes will have folding wings...and to one side there will be the service personnel workshop.
Others saw the potential of aircraft serving as an extension of the might and range of a naval force at sea. They were convinced that airplanes wouldn't be used just for circus sideshows and crop-dusting. They believed aircraft would transport troops across oceans and be equipped to strike offensively. The Navy was again looking upward. As the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Theodore Roosevelt recommended that the Secretary of the Navy appoint two officers “...of scientific attainments and practical ability...” to examine Professor Samuel P. Langley's flying machine and report on its potential for military use.
OTHER DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1900 THROUGH WWI
Meanwhile, the Navy was switching from coal to oil as fuel for its ships. USS Nevada (BB 36) was the first of the battleships to use oil. The day of the coal passer was on the way out.
In World War I, the women's role in the Navy came into its own. In 1811, a Navy surgeon recommended employing women in hospitals to care for the Navy's sick and wounded. The idea was not acted upon at that time.
In the Civil War, women nurses, although not part of the Navy, served aboard the hospital ship USS Red Rover in the medical department. In the war of 1898, the first trained nurses in the Navy, though not an official unit, were stationed at the Norfolk Naval Hospital to care for the injured. A decade later (in 1908), the Nurse Corps was officially born.
Navy involvement in exploration continued during the first decade of the century. On April 6, 1909, Commander Robert E. Peary, accompanied by Matthew Henson, reached the North Pole. In pre-World War I days, the Navy also carried out its role as a diplomatic arm of the government. On December 16, 1907, the Great White Fleet left Hampton Roads, Virginia, for a round-the-world cruise to show the flag. The exercise demonstrated the strength of the U.S. Navy. Although the United States entered World War I late, the Navy had plenty of time to make history. On May 4, 1917, six American destroyers commanded by Commander Joseph K. Taussig steamed into Queenstown, Ireland. They became the first U.S. Navy ships to operate in European waters during World War I. The event, billed as the “return of the Mayflower," was a great morale booster and aid for the Allied forces. The incident is probably best remembered by Commander Taussig's simple remark upon reporting to the British admiral in charge: “I shall be ready when refueled, sir.” Destroyers became a primary symbol of British-American cooperation during WWI. Destroyers were the main defense against German U-boats, which were practicing unrestricted warfare and terrorizing the seas. U-boat attacks were one reason for our entry into the war. The British and Americans exchanged signals, codes, and inventions in combining their destroyer forces to seek out and attack the German submarines. Destroyers served as escorts for troopships and supply convoys for the Allies, helping to ensure their safety. On November 17, 1917, the destroyers USS Nicholson and USS Fanning were the first U.S. ships to sink an enemy submarine. When the United States entered World War I, naval aviation assets were limited. The nation had only 54 aircraft, 1 air station, and 287 personnel assigned to aviation. The nation had no armed forces or operations abroad.
As the nation readied itself for World War I, it needed Yeomen and personnel in related jobs to handle the growing demand from headquarters and naval shore stations. Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy, asked his legal advisors, “Is there any law that says a Yeoman must be a man?” The answer was no, but until that time only men had been enlisted. “Then enroll women in the Naval Reserve as Yeomen,” the Secretary said. In such jobs, he added, they would offer the best “assistance that the country can provide.” Immediately after the United States entered World War I, women were enlisted on a large scale “in order to release enlisted men for active service at sea.” By the time the armistice was signed, 11,275 women were enlisted in service as Yeomen (F). They handled most of the clerical work at the Navy Department, in addition to many highly important special duties. Yeomen (F) were stationed in Guam, the Panama Canal Zone, and Hawaii, in addition to the United States and France. About 300 “Marinettes," as the female enlisted personnel of the Marine Corps were designated, were on duty during the war. Most of them were stationed at Marine Corps Headquarters at the Navy Department, although a number were assigned with Marine Corps recruiting units. All Yeomen (F) were released from active duty by July 31, 1919. Secretary Daniels sent the following message to the Yeomen (F): “It is with deep gratitude for the splendid service rendered by the Yeomen (F) during our national emergency that I convey to them the sincere appreciation of the Navy Department for their patriotic cooperation.”
In spite of its size, the air arm proved its value as a supporting unit to surface antisubmarine (ASW) forces. Navy pilots served with Allied units in France and England. The airplane created a new breed of hero, the ace. Nineteen year-old Lieutenant David Ingalls, later Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Air), flew a Sopwith Camel to become the Navy's first ace. Page 7
All questions in this review concern WWI.
Between 1920 and 1940, the U.S. Navy was developing its aviation arm to include aircraft carriers and airships and airplanes. Also, it was building up its destroyer strength.
Q1. Before WW I, the Navy built surface ships and submarines. What other development occurred then that is still a big part of today's naval arsenal?
Q2. What was one reason why the U.S. Navy was deployed?
Q3. Describe the role of Navy destroyers.
Great strides in aviation had been made during World War I, and the end of the war did not slow the pace of progress. On May 8, 1919, three Navy Curtiss (NC) flying boats taxied into the bay of Far Rockaway, New York, and took off for Europe. Plagued by mechanical difficulties, two NCs failed to make it. The NC-4, piloted by Lieutenant Commander Albert C. Read, became the first airplane to fly the Atlantic. LCDR Read's message from Lisbon, Portugal, to the President read, “We are safely across the pond. The job is finished.” The NC-4 is now located at the National Museum of Naval Aviation, Pensacola, Florida. With transoceanic aircraft a reality, the Navy continued to research the use of rigid airships in its air arm. In 1923, Shenandoah was launched. During a severe squall in 1925, the Shenandoah broke in half and killed 14 men. At that time, some authorities questioned the safety of the airship since it was fueled with highly flammable hydrogen. In spite of some opposition, the Navy continued to test rigid airships throughout the next decade. In 1931, USS Akron was launched. The Akron crashed in 1933 during a thunderstorm, killing the entire
Q4. Describe the role of the air forces.
Q5. What was the role of Navy women?
Between the two world wars, the United States built the Navy's destroyer fleet to 184 ships. Destroyers also became prime factors in America's policy to turn over older destroyers (fig. 5-9) to Britain after the British entered the war against Germany. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, a destroyer, USS Ward (DD 139), was among the first American forces to fire against the enemy, sinking a Japanese midget submarine. Destroyers went on to distinguish themselves in fighting enemy submarines both in the Atlantic and Pacific theaters.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was the first attack in history conducted solely from aircraft carriers. The attack proved beyond a doubt that aircraft had become an essential part of naval armament. Fortunately, no United States carriers were lost during the attack on Pearl Harbor. The USS Yorktown, USS Wasp, and USS Ranger were in the Atlantic, and the USS Saratoga was in San Diego. The USS Lexington was about 425 miles south of Midway, and the USS Enterprise was 200 miles west of the Pearl Harbor. The Japanese Imperial Navy captured island after island in the South Pacific as it advanced toward Australia. The U.S. Navy's air arm finally stopped that advance in early May 1942, which set the scene for the turning point of the war in the Pacific. At the Battle of Coral Sea, the two fleets never saw each other—the battle was fought entirely with aircraft launched from carriers. The USS Lexington and USS Yorktown, jointly under the command of Admiral F. J. Fletcher, launched 93 attack planes against the Japanese carriers Shoho, Shokaku, and Zuikaku. Within 5 minutes, the Shoho was hit with 10 heavy bombs and 15 torpedoes. The USS Lexington's radio crackled with the voice of Lieutenant Commander Dixon of the air group, “Scratch one flattop. Dixon to carrier, scratch one flattop!” The other two enemy carriers were so badly damaged that their services to the Japanese fleet were lost for weeks. The United States suffered the loss of an oiler, an escort, and the USS Lexington. Even though American losses were heavy in tonnage and men, Australia had been saved from invasion.
the operation was a complete failure: It was the deciding catastrophe for their Navy. The loss of the Philippines severed their empire, and the homeland was cut off from its main source of supply from the south. With the losses at Okinawa and Iwo Jima, the war in the Pacific was approaching its final days.
The turning point of the war in the Pacific came the next month at the Battle of Midway. The Japanese had concentrated on the central Pacific with the intention of occupying Midway Island. The four-carrier Japanese task force was met by a U.S. carrier force. The U.S. force included the carriers USS Yorktown, USS Hornet, and USS Enterprise, plus Navy, Marine, and Army air units from Midway. Dive bombers proved to be the downfall of the Japanese carrier force. When the battle ended, the Japanese had lost four carriers, one heavy cruiser, and 258 aircraft. The United States had lost 132 aircraft, the destroyer USS Hammann (DD 412), and the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown (CV 5). In April 1943, another USS Yorktown was commissioned; and it continued in the proud tradition established by its predecessor. In November 1942. the Navy fought the Battle of Guadalcanal. After 3 days of bitter fighting, the Japanese naval forces retreated, and U.S. Marines were able to secure the island. With the fall of Guadalcanal, the southern Solomons came under Allied control and Australia was in less danger of attack. On June 19, 1944, U.S. Task Force 58 (fig. 5-11) caught the combined Japanese fleet steaming out of Tawi in the southern Philippines. The Battle of the Philippine Sea ended with the Japanese carrier forces short of ships, planes, gas, and pilots. Unable to replace these, the Imperial Navy was never able to recover from losses, although many desperate battles were to follow.
On the Atlantic side of World War II, the U.S. Navy had been fighting off U-boats in the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. The Navy protected convoys bound for Europe. Small escort carriers dubbed "jeeps” were operating with convoys; and their aircraft were successfully attacking German submarines as they surfaced to recharge their batteries. Limited range of land-based airplanes was no longer a significant factor; and distance offered no sanctuary for the U-boat. Eventually, the German submarine menace was contained, and England and Europe got vital supplies
The Navy's most notable Atlantic action may have been its part in the June 6, 1944, invasion of Normandy—the largest amphibious operation in history. The greatest armada ever assembled carried out minesweeping, shore-bombardment, amphibious operations, and transported supplies and troops. Those operations let the Allies complete D-Day landings successfully and eventually push on to Germany.
Widespread fighting on the oceans brought about the building of a fleet unlike any in history. This was a swift striking force. It had the advantages of speed, mobility, and surprise, yet it possessed the firepower and protective armor to stand and slug it out with enemy forces. Such a fleet was made up of ships with names synonymous with heroism, such as the USS Tarawa, USS Missouri (fig. 5-12), USS Tucson, USS Higbee, and USS O'Bannon.
Figure 5-11.-Part of Task Force 58 at anchor in the Marshall Islands, April 1944.
The final blow to the Japanese Navy came October 23, 1944. In a last-chance effort to salvage the Philippines, the Japanese sent a naval force to the Leyte Gulf to attack the U.S. Fleet. Their plan backfired and Student Notes:
During the 5-year period ending in late 1944, 9 million tons of vessels had been added to the U.S. Navy. One novel development was the large assortment of landing ships that began appearing in the early stages of important of the submarine's senses. Hydrophones listen for sounds from other ships and the echoes of sound waves transmitted from the submarine itself.
Figure 5-12.-V-J Day aboard USS Missouri. Fleet Admiral Nimitz signs the Japanese surrender document on 2 September 1945.
Twenty-one years after the Yeomanette era, women were needed to fill an acute shortage of personnel caused by rapid expansion of the Navy for World War II. On July 30, 1942, Congress authorized establishment of the Women's Reserve, with an estimated goal of 10,000 enlisted women and 1,000 officers. This new organization had certain congressional limitations. Women could not serve at sea or outside the continental United States and could not exercise military command over men. They could not go beyond lieutenant commander on the promotion ladder. On August 4, 1942, Mildred Helen McAfee was sworn in as Lieutenant Commander, U.S. Naval Reserve, to become Commander of the Women's Reserve.
Possibly the most versatile of the many new types of ships built during World War II were the destroyer escorts, now called frigates. Other types built during that time included attack cargo ships, transports, barracks ships, net tenders, repair ships, radar pickets, minelayers, and mine sweepers. Those ships, as well as many other types of ships too numerous to mention, changed the shape of the U.S. Navy almost overnight. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, 111 American submarines were in commission, 60 in the Atlantic Fleet and 51 in the Pacific. After the invasion of North Africa, U.S. efforts were concentrated in the Pacific, leaving submarine operations in the Atlantic to U.S. Allies. The Pacific became the hunting grounds for American submarine forces. The number of American submarines during the war peaked at 247. During the war, the United States lost 52 of these boats along with 3,505 submariners. The number of vessels sunk by U.S. submarines played a major part in the American victory in World War II. American submarines sank 1,750 Japanese merchant ships and more than 200 combatants. Those vessels represented 55 percent of the total Japanese tonnage sunk in the war. For an island nation such as Japan, those figures represented a fatal impact. Radar and sonar came into full use during World War II. The English used them initially to combat German U-boats, but they were also incorporated into the submarine as an attack aid. Sonar has become the most
A boot camp for women volunteers was established at Hunter College in New York City. It was promptly dubbed USS Hunter. Since basic training lasted from 6 to 8 weeks, every other week some 1,680 women seamen had to be housed, fed, and uniformed. (The housing was provided in 17 apartment buildings near the college taken over by the Navy.) At about the same time, three other schools were commissioned in the Middle West to train enlisted women as Yeomen, Storekeepers, and Radiomen. In July 1943, the Navy Japanese Language School in Boulder, Colorado, opened to women. Navy women came to work the same hours as Navy men, standing both day and night watches. They stayed in uniform at all times except in the barracks or when engaged in active sports. They were called on to meet the same standards of neatness and good behavior as those required of men in uniform. In short, women were fitted into the Navy as an integral part of the service. They slipped into the same spot in the chain of command as the men they replaced and performed the same duties. This system gave Navy women the same status, responsibilities, and restrictions as men. The first Reserve classification for women officers was W-V(S), meaning Woman-Volunteer (Specialist).
members to appropriate components of the permanent Naval Reserve.
Antarctic exploration. Following World War II, the U.S. Navy turned its attention once again to the exploration of Antarctica. In 1946, Operation Highjump got underway. Seaplanes flying from the open sea and the airstrip at Little America photographed the interior and coastline of the “white continent.”
Professor Elizabeth Reynard (later LT Reynard) came up with the term Women Appointed for Voluntary Emergency Service (WAVES). That term was later changed to Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service. The initials WR and the term Women's Reserve were official, and some women preferred these terms to the equally official, but less formal, term WAVES. As the Women's Reserve observed its second anniversary on July 30, 1944, it could look back upon a brief but glowing record of expansion and achievement. During its 2 years of existence, its members had freed enough officers and men to crew a fleet of 10 battleships, 10 aircraft carriers, 28 cruisers, and 50 destroyers. During World War II, WAVES were directly eligible for 34 different ratings. They performed nearly every conceivable type of duty at 500 naval shore establishments.
Unlike the placid years following World War I, the postwar period from 1945 to 1950 was a busy one. The United States emerged from the war with an awareness that it couldn't afford any major cutbacks in military strength. The United States had become a nation committed to trading with and protecting other countries. The only way that responsibility could be discharged was by the maintenance of a strong and ready Navy. Navy women. Since the WAVES had proved their worth during the war, the Navy was reluctant to give up its programs for women. After the war, a number of Navy women were retained in service. However, by the fourth anniversary of the program, only 9,800 remained on active duty. The Women's Armed Services Integration Act, Public Law 625, was passed by the Senate and the House and signed by the President. It became law June 12, 1948, marking another step forward. That was perhaps the most significant milestone to date in the history of women in the Navy. That act gave women full partnership on the Navy team and abolished the Women's Reserve. For the first time, women became a part of the Regular Navy. At the same time the Regular Navy opened to women, the Reserves established a program for women volunteers. The new laws authorized the transfer of all
Naval aviation. Naval researchers continued to develop new, specialized ships and new planes capable of providing swift aid to Allies in a world of uneasy peace. All naval aircraft, featuring the most advanced radar and sonar systems, were redistributed into patrol, attack, and fighter squadrons. Jet aircraft were perfected during the postwar years. In June 1948, a squadron of FH-1 Phantoms qualified for carrier operations aboard USS Saipan (CVL-48). Carrier flight decks were redesigned to launch and recover jets. Submarines and nuclear power. During this time, the Navy was speeding development of the most revolutionary advancement in the history of submarines—nuclear power. Early in World War II, as part of the Navy's initial research on the atom, proposals were made to develop atomic power for use afloat. However, most of that work was diverted to development of the atomic bomb. Nuclear power was the long-awaited propulsion source for the submarine. It turned the submersible surface ship into a true submarine, capable of almost indefinite operation. It was no longer bound to the earth's atmosphere. In September 1947, Captain H. G. Rickover informally requested the first study of the application of a high-pressure, water-cooled reactor for a submarine. Personnel of the Daniels Pile Division at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, undertook that study. In January 1948, the Department of Defense requested that the Atomic Energy Commission undertake the design, development, and construction of a nuclear reactor that would propel a naval submarine. In December 1948, the Commission contracted the Westinghouse Electric Corporation to develop design, construct, operate, and test a prototype nuclear propulsion plant. The outcome of those efforts was USS Nautilus. Page 8
jets flew from carriers for the first time in a war situation. Unlike World War II, the enemy didn't have the capability to strike our carriers, so pilots launched their Corsairs and Banshees on the first sustained ground-support missions in history. The helicopter also came of age during the Korean Conflict. First studied and developed in 1942 when the Navy received four Sikorskys, the choppers were spotters for artillery. In Korea, they flew emergency supply runs and took part in direct combat duties. Later, the helicopter was used as a cargo transport between ships during underway replenishment, search and rescue missions, and ASW exercises. Korea was the testing ground for the helicopter and many other innovations our forces currently use. On September 15, 1950, under massive shore bombardment by U.S. Navy ships, the amphibious landings at Inchon began. The successful operation cut enemy communications, split enemy forces, and dissolved enemy resistance in that area. The shelling of supply roads far inland by the battleship USS Missouri demonstrated a new tactical concept. That concept was the Navy's ability to intervene successfully in a ground operation far ashore. The Korean Conflict (fig. 5-13 and fig. 5-14) lasted until July 1953. Other events were happening in the Navy while the war was being waged. For example, a program was established giving outstanding enlisted women the opportunity to receive commissions in the Regular Navy.
Photograph courtesy of Mr. Francis Jeffery. Figure 5-14.-Korean War Memorial—soldier.
The 1950s was a time of change. By the end of the decade, most operational aircraft in the attack and fighter arsenals of the sea service were jets. More and more angled-deck carriers were authorized, and new deck-edge elevators allowed simultaneous takeoffs and landings. The USS Nautilus, the first nuclear submarine, was first put to sea on January 17, 1955. Under Commander Eugene P. Wilkinson, the USS Nautilus transmitted the historic signal, “Underway on nuclear power.” On its shakedown cruise in May 1955, the USS Nautilus steamed submerged from New London, Connecticut, to San Juan, Puerto Rico. It traveled over 1,300 miles in 84 hours—a distance 10 times greater than the record for continuously submerged travel by any previous submarine. After more than 2 years of operation and evaluation, the USS Nautilus was refueled in April 1957. On its first nuclear core, it steamed a total of 62,562 miles; it made more than half of that cruise while totally submerged. A conventionally powered submarine the size of the USS Nautilus would have required over 2 million gallons of fuel oil to duplicate that feat. A train of tank cars over a mile and a half long would have been necessary to transport that amount of fuel.
On August 12, 1958, the USS Nautilus completed a history-making transpolar voyage from Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, to Portland, England. After diving under the ice near Point Barrow, Alaska, on August 1, 1958, it became the first submarine to reach the geographic North Pole.
guided-missile cruiser USS Bainbridge, launched April 15, 1961; the guided-missile cruiser USS Long Beach, commissioned September 9, 1961; and the carrier USS Enterprise, commissioned November 25, 1961. On October 3, 1964, those three ships ended Operation Sea Orbit, a 64-day long, around-the-world, unreplenished cruise.
Nuclear submarines produced after the USS Nautilus continued to pioneer new areas of submarine operations. The USS Seawolf, the Navy's second nuclear-powered submarine, operated as an active unit of the Atlantic Fleet. On October 6, 1958, it completed a record-breaking 60-day run, traveling a distance of 13,761 miles submerged. While the USS Nautilus was still undergoing operational testing, the Navy began development of a ballistic missile of intermediate range. Brought from conception to initial operation in 5 years’time, the Polaris fleet ballistic missile (FBM) weapons system was mated with nuclear propulsion. That development produced a virtually invulnerable missile-firing submarine. Today, the missile-firing submarine constitutes one of the highest priority elements of the United States' deterrent capability; that is, a deterrent to nuclear conflict.
Each Polaris submarine could launch 16 two-stage ballistic missiles powered by solid-fuel rocket motors, containing a self-contained inertial guidance system. The Polaris provided a combined explosive power greater than the total of all the bombs dropped by all aircraft during World War II. Nuclear propulsion enabled these Polaris submarines to remain on patrol for extended periods, hidden beneath the surface of the sea, ready to launch their missiles.
Figure 5-15.-Seven original NASA astronauts.
On station, a Polaris submarine maintained complete radio silence, receiving radio messages while submerged, but not transmitting to prevent giving away its location. Each ship had two complete crews, the Blue and the Gold, of about 130 people each. The Polaris operated on a system that reflected a major change in the Navy's traditional ship-manning methods. The crews alternated on approximately 3-month-long deployments, providing maximum on-station time for the submarine. Its endurance was limited only the limitations of its personnel.
Naval officers also participated in space exploration. On May 5, 1961, Commander Alan B. Shepard, Jr., made America's first suborbital flight. The 15-minute shot in Freedom 7 went 116.5 miles into space.
Although the United States was at peace following the Korean Conflict, events were building that would plunge the country into another conflict. Since 1959, the French had been involved in fighting in a country most Americans had never heard of—Vietnam.
Submarines were followed by the world's first nuclear-powered surface warships. They were the Student Notes:
Americans were introduced to Vietnam in 1965. In that year, the United States entered the Vietnam Police Action. This police action, which caused conflict at home as well as on the battlefield, lasted until January 1973. Figures 5-16 through 5-19 commemorate American actions in Vietnam.
The Navy's operations in support of South Vietnam's struggle against communist military aggression consisted mainly of gunfire support and carrier aircraft operations. These operations included coastal interdiction patrols against North Vietnamese ships moving troops and supplies to the south. They also included riverine operations by a swarm of various types of patrol craft in the maze of waterways in South
Vietnam's delta area. (By early 1972 all boats and the responsibility for delta operations had been turned over to the South Vietnamese Navy.) Naval construction battalions (Seabees) built several military bases and constructed water and sanitary facilities for local communities. Often, as in World War II, they engaged in fighting as they worked. Navy medical personnel served in the field with Marine Corps and Seabee units, as they did in World War II and in the Korean Conflict. They often performed their duties under fire and often sacrificed themselves to protect their charges from further harm. As in previous wars, U.S. Navy service and amphibious forces transported over 90 percent of the personnel and supplies used in support of that conflict.
During the Vietnam era, five new attack carriers joined the fleet, including the world's first nuclear-powered carrier, USS Enterprise (CVN 65). Vietnam was a different kind of war, a war in which the Navy's role was ever changing. The Navy used both new and old aircraft—OV-10 Broncos, propeller-driven Skyraiders, attack planes like A-4 Skyhawks and A-7 Corsairs, and fighter planes like F-8 Crusaders. It used various support aircraft for ASW, early warning, and advance communications links.
ballistic missile system—the Poseidon. The growth potential of the ballistic missile submarine launching system has enabled the Poseidon to fit into the same 16-missile tubes that carried the Polaris. Like the Polaris A-3, it is able to reach any spot on earth from its nuclear-powered hiding place. Its increased accuracy, greater payload, and improved ability to penetrate enemy defenses make the Poseidon more effective than the Polaris.
On July 19, 1974, construction of the new Trident undersea nuclear weapons system commenced. The Trident system consists of three principal elements: a nuclear-powered fleet ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), a strategic weapons system (the missile), and an integrated logistics support system. The first Trident submarine was the USS Ohio (SSBN-726), a nuclear powered fleet ballistic missile submarine. The USS Ohio was delivered to the Navy in 1981. Since then, the Navy has accepted delivery of 10 more Trident submarines.
Even during the Vietnam Police Action, the Navy was involved in exploration and development. Former Navy pilot Neil Armstrong became the first man to set foot on the moon on July 20, 1969. On November 14, 1969, the all-Navy Apollo 12 crew lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center on the second lunar expedition. The crew consisted of Commanders Charles Conrad and Richard Gordon and Lieutenant Commander Alan Bean. Another all-Navy crew (Captain Charles Conrad, Jr., and Commanders Joseph P. Kerwin and Paul J. Wietz) splashed down on the first Skylab mission on June 22, 1973. The crew set numerous records and accomplished virtually all of its objectives. Space. The Navy stands tall in the first 10 years of manned space exploration. Records show that five of the six men to walk on the surface of the moon during that time had formerly been trained as naval aviators. Research. In the 1960s, Navy scientific undersea research resulted in the USS Alvin. The USS Alvin was the Navy's first deep diving vehicle. It was successfully tested at 6,000-foot depths on July 20, 1965. The next month, 10 aquanauts, including astronaut Commander M. Scott Carpenter, entered the Sealab II capsule, 205 feet below the surface of the sea off the coast of La Jolla, California. Carpenter remained underwater for 30 days in a successful experiment of submerged living and working conditions. On January 25, 1969, the first nuclear-powered, deep-submergence research and ocean-engineering vehicle, NR-1, was launched. That five-man vessel can operate for weeks at a time at great depths. Weapons. In early 1965 came the announcement of the proposal to develop a new missile for the fleet
As with other wars, conflicts, or areas of military aggression, U.S. naval forces operate in the hostile area of the Persian Gulf. U.S. naval forces have been present in this vital oil-rich region for many years. The events leading to an increased number of U.S. naval units in the Persian Gulf (fig. 5-20) began in the mid 1980s. Iran and Iraq were at war. Iraq had begun attacking Iranian oil facilities and tankers; in response, Iran began attacks against ships flying flags of countries sympathetic to Iraq. U.S. Navy ships quickly began escort and protection operations for U.S.-flagged tankers.
Figure 5-20.—Persian Gulf award. Page 9
Persian Gulf. Others filled critical vacancies on the home front.
As the war between Iran and Iraq widened, so did the dangers to U.S. Navy ships operating in the Gulf. Iran started laying mines in the Gulf and began using small suicide boats to raid U.S. tankers and naval units. Iraq also possessed weapons that could cause tremendous damage and casualties. These weapons proved costly to the United States. In May 1987, an Iraqi aircraft mistakenly fired two missiles that struck USS Stark (FFG-31), killing 37 sailors and wounding many more. In April 1988, Iran's use of mines caused considerable damage to USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58). Until that time, the U.S. Navy's presence was largely defensive. When forced to take offensive action, the United States acted quickly. U.S. Navy ships bombarded an Iranian oil platform being used as a command post and sank a mine-laying vessel carrying out operations.
Saddam Hussein's rejection of diplomatic efforts to solve the crisis led to the final decision to restore Kuwait's sovereignty by military force. The ensuing air war and the effects of the economic embargo decimated Iraq's military infrastructure, severed communication and supply lines, smashed weapons arsenals, and destroyed morale. Some of the first shots fired were from Navy ships in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, as they launched salvos of Tomahawk cruise missiles against pre-programmed targets in Iraq.
DESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM
After an impressive 38-day air campaign, the ground offensive began with allied forces sweeping through Iraqi defenses in blitzkrieg fashion. The allied push into Kuwait and southern Iraq was made easier by the amphibious forces on station in the Persian Gulf. The threat they posed forced tens of thousands of Iraqi troops to maintain positions along the Kuwaiti coastline to defend against attack from the sea. The Iraqi army was crushed after a mere 100 hours. Iraqi troops—tired, hungry and war-weary from 6 months of economic blockade and more than a month of relentless allied bombing—surrendered by the thousands. Less than 7 months after the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait was once again free.
On 2 August 1990, the president of Iraq Saddam Hussein, ordered the world's fourth largest army from Iraq to invade the country Kuwait. The United States deployed a major joint force which served as the foundation for a powerful 33-nation military coalition to stem Iraq's brutal aggression. Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm was born. The United States Navy provided the sea control and maritime superiority that paved the way for the introduction of U.S. and allied air and ground forces. The United States offered strong leadership for the multinational naval force. . Desert Shield/Desert Storm brought together the largest force of Navy warships assembled in a single theater since World War II, adding a powerful punch to Navy forces already on scene the night of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. Long-established maritime superiority facilitated the largest, fastest strategic sealift in history, with more than 240 ships carrying more than 18.3 billion pounds of equipment and supplies to sustain the forces of Desert Shield/Desert Storm. Under the Navy's Total Force concept more than 21,000 naval reservists were called to active duty in support of Desert Shield/Desert Storm. Serving in specialties from medicine to mine warfare, reservists worked alongside their active duty counterparts in the
It is likely that Navy ships will continue to represent and protect U.S. interests in the region for the foreseeable future.
Q1. List some of the Navy's roles during the Korean Conflict.
• Power available upon command. Nuclear reactors eliminate the need to order “more boilers on the line” a half hour before full power is desired. Heat is produced in the nuclear reactor; in turn, steam and power is produced with little delay. Reduction from full power to one-third or stop is equally responsive.
The United States Navy began more than 200 years ago with two ships, but today we are the finest naval force in history. The history of the Navy is a big story and an exciting one. We've only rippled the surface here, but maybe we've stimulated your curiosity enough that you will want to take a closer look at your Navy's past. If so, visit your ship or station library. You will find many fine books on naval history there. From Flamborough Head to the Persian Gulf, the U.S. Navy has always been “on station” in time of trouble. The U.S. Navy's mission of preparedness to conduct prompt and sustained combat operations at sea means the U.S. Navy will be present at the first sign of conflict.
• Reduced maintenance. The absence of corrosive stack gases cuts down on the wear and tear of the ships and a lot of at-sea and in-port repairs. The Navy has been advancing in other areas of the surface fleet as well. An example is the new amphibious assault ships (LHAs). The LHAs are the largest and fastest amphibious ships in the Navy inventory and offer the greatest operational versatility in the history of amphibious warfare. The size of the LHAs alone is impressive. The first of the LHAs, the USS Tarawa, is 820 feet long and 106 feet wide. The high point of its mast is 221 feet above the keel, and it has a full displacement of 39,300 tons. It can carry a large landing force with all its equipment and supplies, landing them either by helo or amphibious craft or both.
U. S. Navy ships continued to change with even greater momentum, ushering in another new era—that of nuclear propulsion, jet power, rockets, and guided missiles. New types of ships have emerged—ships such as guided-missile cruisers, tactical command
The primary advantage of these general-purpose assault ships is tactical integrity—getting a balanced force to the same point at the same time. Spruance-class ships are the Navy's prime ASW destroyers. They are fitted with our most powerful sonar, helicopters, our best ASW weapons, and the Harpoon surface-to-surface missile system. The most recent additions to the surface fleet are the Ticonderoga-class cruisers and the Arleigh Burke-class destroyers. Both are powered by gas turbines and are capable of high-speed transits. They are also outfitted
with the Navy's new Aegis weapons system. That system has the capability to track and engage multiple targets, using a complex system of radars, missiles, guns, torpedoes, and self-defense systems. These capabilities make these cruisers and destroyers the most survivable units of today's surface fleet. Our ability to quickly deploy large carrier battle groups and surface action groups quickly will assure our allies of our ability to exercise sea control. That ability, coupled with the U.S. submarine forces' strategic deterrence objective, will allow the United States and its allies the ability to deter further hostile action worldwide.
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Organization is the element of administration which entails the orderly arrangement of materials and personnel by functions in order to attain the objective of the unit. Organization establishes the working relationship among unit personnel; establishes the flow of work; promotes teamwork; and identifies the responsibility, authority and accountability of individuals within the unit.
-Standard Organization and Regulations of the U.S. Navy, OPNAVINST 3120.32C
The primary mission of the Navy is to support U.S. national interests. To do that, the Navy must be prepared to conduct prompt and sustained combat operations at sea. Each Navy unit must be prepared to engage in battle and support other units and forces in battle. Meeting the objectives of this mission requires organization. This chapter introduces you to naval organization, including the Department of Defense, the Department of the Navy, a typical unit organization, and the chain of command.
2. To ensure, by timely and effective military action, the security of the United States, its possessions, and areas vital to its interests 3. To uphold and advance the national policies and interests of the United States 4. To safeguard the internal security of the United States Figure 6-1 shows how the armed forces fit into the organization of the DoD to carry out these missions. The DoD is headed by the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF). The military departments that come under the DoD are the Department of the Army, the Department of the Air Force, and the Department of the Navy. Each department has a secretary as the head of department. By law, these secretaries (Army, Navy, Air Force, and SECDEF) are civilian appointees of the President. The Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV) heads the department of which you are a part.
Learning Objective: When you finish this chapter, you will be able to
• Recognize the organization of the Department of Defense (DoD) to include the Department of the Navy (DoN) and the operating forces.
Originally, two executive departments managed the armed forces—the Department of War and the Department of the Navy. In 1947, the United States created the Department of Defense (DoD) as part of its security program by combining these two departments. The DoD consists of various agencies and three military departments—the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The DoD includes the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which consists of a chairman, the military heads of each department, and the Commandant of the Marine Corps. The DoD maintains and employs the armed forces to carry out the following missions: 1. To support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic
The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train, and equip combat-ready naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, and maintaining freedom of the seas. The Department of the Navy has two main objectives: 1. The first objective is to organize, train, equip, prepare, and maintain the readiness of Navy and Marine Corps forces to perform military missions. These forces carry out military missions as directed by the President through the Secretary of Defense, to the SECNAV, to the Navy Department.
Figure 6-1.-Organizational chart of the Department of Defense.
2. The second objective is to support the Navy and Marine Corps forces as well as the forces of other military departments. The Department of the Navy supports these forces as directed by the Secretary of Defense.
Figure 6-2 shows the basic organization of the DoN. The SECNAV is responsible for, and has the authority under Title 10 of the United States Code, to conduct all the affairs of the Department of the Navy. The SECNAV has the following responsibilities:
The DoN consists of two uniformed Services—the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. You can find out more about these organizations by using the Internet. The Internet address is www.navy.mil. There, you can connect to a Navy organization's homepage. Figure 6-3 shows you an overview of the organization of the DoN. The U.S. Navy was founded on 13 October 1775, and the Department of the Navy was established on 30 April 1798. The Department of the Navy has three principal components1. The Navy Department, consisting of executive offices mostly in Washington, D.C. 2. The operating forces, including the Marine Corps
• Conducts recruiting, organizing, supplying, equipping, training, and mobilizing, and demobilizing
Figure 6-4.-Operating forces. Page 11
Q5. The U.S. Coast Guard operates under different departments. List the department the Coast Guard operates under in the two conditions shown below.
The ship’s/command's organization and regulations manual governs the unit's administrative organization (including watches). It governs the coordination of evolutions and emergency procedures and the conduct of personnel in the unit. Its purpose is to provide a ready source of information about the duties, responsibilities, and authority of unit personnel. Ships/ commands usually require all newly reporting personnel to read the manual and sign a statement to that effect. Discussing the organization of every unit in the Navy would be impossible. Therefore, you will learn about a standard shipboard organization and a standard aircraft squadron organization in this chapter.
Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter, you will be able to —
• Identify the duties and responsibilities of the commanding officer, executive officer, department head, and division officer. The officers and enlisted personnel make up a ship’s wartime organization. They keep the ship in a state of readiness to fight a war. During peacetime operations, the ship’s organization can be expanded if a wartime operation becomes necessary. The two elements of the ship’s organization are the battle organization and the administrative organization.
Look at figure 6-6. Each ship is organized into at least five departments-navigation, engineering, operations, supply, and a fifth department. For most ships, the fifth department is the weapons/deck department. Some ships have a separate deck department in addition to a weapons department, and some have a deck department instead of a weapons/deck department. Specially designated ships have a combat systems department instead of a weapons or weapons/deck department. Additional departments may be assigned according to ship type. Some of these departments are air, medical, dental, and repair.
The battle organization contains a list of the numbers and specialties of the personnel a unit will need to fulfill the wartime missions. The unit's battle organization depends on its armament, equipment, and personnel. As a part of the battle organization, you should know your assignments as posted on the Watch, Quarter, and Station Bill.
Each department is under a department head. Departments are usually divided into divisions under a division officer. Each division is subdivided into sections, usually under senior petty officers. The following paragraphs describe the responsibilities of the five standard departments. Navigation Department
-All decking seamanship operations and the care and use of deck equipment.
• If the ship has a deck department but no weapons or combat systems department — The first lieutenant (head of the deck department) is responsible for deck functions.
• If the ship has a combat systems department but no deck department —The operations department is responsible for deck functions.
The commanding officer (CO) has many and varied duties. The CO has so many duties that one entire chapter in Navy Regulations, consisting of nearly 70 articles, applies to commanding officers. In general, the CO is responsible for the safety, well-being, and efficiency of the command. The commanding officer's responsibilities include the safe navigation of the ship and the condition and appearance of the material and personnel. The CO must also ensure the proper stationing of trained lookouts and the preparation of the ship for battle. The CO may delegate authority in these matters, but such delegation does not relieve the CO of responsibility. The officer of the deck (OOD), for example, has authority to run the ship; but if a collision occurs, the CO is still responsible. The commanding officer must exert every effort to maintain the command in a state of maximum readiness for war. The commanding officer issues the necessary directions to the executive officer (XO). With the assistance of the various department heads, the XO then prepares and conducts exercises and drills needed to prepare the ship for battle. During combat, the commanding officer directs the members of the crew in fighting to the best of their ability until action is complete. The CO’s battle station is where the CO can best direct the fighting. If the ship should sink, both custom and regulations require the commanding officer to assure the completion of
abandon ship procedures. All personnel should be off the ship before the commanding officer leaves. The CO's power is authoritative and complete. With ultimate responsibility for the ship and everything pertaining to it, the commanding officer must have authority equal to the responsibility. To ensure efficiency, responsibility, and discipline, the commanding officer must have the power to enforce prompt obedience to orders. According to the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), the commanding officer has the power to impose limited punishment. This power is a part of a CO's command responsibility and may not be delegated. Since the ship has only one CO but many crew members, a senior enlisted member gives advice on enlisted policies and informs the CO about the health, welfare, and general well-being of the crew. The senior enlisted member acts as a liaison between the officer and enlisted community. The senior enlisted member assigned to assist the CO is a master chief, a senior chief, or a chief petty officer (depending on the senior rate within the command). This person receives assignment as the command master chief (CM/C), command senior chief (CS/C), or command chief (CCh). This senior enlisted member transmits ideas and recommendations directly to the commanding officer. If the CO is absent, disabled, relieved from duty, or detached without relief, another officer must assume the CO's responsibilities. This person is the next senior line officer that is eligible for command at sea, and who is attached to and aboard the ship. In most cases, this person is the executive officer.
The executive officer (XO) is the aide or “executive” to the commanding officer. The XO is usually the next ranking line officer aboard ship. As such, the XO is the direct representative of the commanding officer in maintaining the general efficiency of the ship. Some of the XO's responsibilities include the following:
• The command's assigned personnel. With the help of department heads, the XO arranges and coordinates all ship's work, drills, exercises, and policing and inspecting the ship. Page 12
Investigate matters affecting the discipline and conduct of the crew and makes recommendations concerning these matters to the commanding officer.
• Approve or disapprove liberty lists and leave requests.
onboard education, prevention, screening, command counseling, aftercare, probationary supervision, motivational training, and referral services. Command master chief (CM/C). While serving as one of the XO's assistants, the CMC has direct access to the CO and is the voice of all enlisted personnel. In addition to these assistants, the executive officer may also have a legal officer, combat cargo officer, safety officer, and others as required. The master-at-arms force also works directly under the executive officer.
• Inspect the ship and receive readiness reports from the various department heads when the ship is cleared for action; then report to the CO when the ship is ready for action. If the captain is disabled during battle, the Xo normally becomes the acting commanding officer. For this reason, the location of the XO's battle station (determined by the captain) is some distance from the captain's. This prevents disablement of both officers at the same time. After a battle, the executive officer makes a detailed report to the commanding officer. If the Xo cannot fulfill the duties of the commanding officer, normally, the next senior line officer assigned to the ship assumes the duties of the commanding officer. Depending on the size of the ship, the executive officer may have one or more assistants. Some of these assistants and their responsibilities are as follows: Personnel officer. The personnel officer assigns personnel to the various departments, berthing arrangements, and to the task of maintaining enlisted service records.
As the representative of the commanding officer, the department head is responsible for and reports to the CO about all matters that affect the department. That includes administrative matters, the operational readiness of the department, and the general condition of equipment.
The division is the basic unit of the shipboard organization. The CO assigns division officers to command the divisions of the ship's organization. Division officers are responsible to and, in general, act as assistants to department heads. The number of divisions in a department varies among ships, with each division having only a few assigned personnel to as many as 200 personnel. The division officer is a major link in your chain of command, particularly in a small ship. At the working level, the division officer carries out command policies and personally sees that division tasks are completed in a timely manner. Some of the division officer's duties include
Training officer. The training officer secures school quotas, schedules orientation courses for newly reporting personnel, and helps prepare long- and short-range training schedules. Educational services officer (ESO). The educational services officer (ESO) receipts for, maintains, and distributes educational courses and training aids. Drug and alcohol program advisor (DAPA). The drug and alcohol program advisor (DAPA) advises the CO and XO on all matters concerning the Navy's Drug and Alcohol Abuse Program. The DAPA provides
• Making frequent inspections of division personnel, spaces, equipment, and supplies
• Maintaining copies of all division orders and bills and displaying them in a conspicuous place
• Training division personnel and preparing them
Q5. Aboard ship, what officer is responsible for the safe navigation of the ship, the condition of the ship, and the appearance of material and personnel?
Q10. What are the responsibilities of the department Page 13
Work-related problems are situations that affect a person's job performance. A work-related problem might be a situation in which a person feels mistreated by a senior. It could also be a situation in which a person needs leave or liberty because of an illness in the family. The chain of command is responsible to each Navy member for solving work-related problems. When a person's immediate senior is unable to resolve a problem, the next senior in the chain of command tries to solve the problem. If the senior at that level of command is unable to resolve the problem, it then goes to the next level in the chain of command. The problem continues to be referred to each level in the chain of command until it is resolved. You must always use the chain of command when seeking solutions to work-related problems.
BMR10608 LEADING PETTY OFFICER
Figure 6-8.-Typical shipboard chain of command.
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES
Figure 6-8 shows a typical shipboard, straight-line chain of command from the nonrated level to the commanding officer. An aircraft squadron's chain of command includes a branch officer.
CHIEF OF NAVAL OPERATIONS
For watch-standing assignments, the chain of command includes a section leader (not shown). The section leader may be from your division but often is a petty officer from another division. The section leader makes watch assignments for all personnel assigned to the section. Inform the section leader of situations, such as leave or special liberty, that affect your availability for watch assignments. In most cases, the chain of command shown in figure 6-8 is complete. However, the chain of command does not stop with the commanding officer. Remember, all people in the military are responsible to their seniors!
Figure 6-9.-Typical chain of command from the CO of a ship to the President.
The chain of command extends from nonrated personnel all the way to the President of the United States. Figure 6-8 shows the shipboard chain of command from the nonrated person to the commanding officer. Figure 6-9 shows a typical chain of command
from the President to the commanding officer of a ship. To learn your chain of command, ask someone in the administrative (Admin) office to show you the command's organizational chart.
Q1. The chain of command defines the relationship of juniors and seniors in an organization. List the five areas that affect the chain of command.
Where do I go? What do I do? Who is in charge? With the Navy's organizational structure, all personnel, from the CNO to the newest crew member, know what their job is, where they work, and who their supervisor is. Think about being at sea; its midnight and the general alarm sounds. Are the gun mounts manned by personnel trained to handle them or just by the people that showed up first? What about the repair lockers, the engine rooms, or the bridge? Without an organization that ensures properly trained personnel manning each billet, our ships could not be in a continual high state of readiness. What about a problem in the work space? Who do we tell about it? Do we tell the department head or the captain? Our chain of command works in both directions, up and down. The upper level keeps us informed of the types of operations being conducted and what types of hazards we face. The people in the lower levels must keep the upper levels informed of all difficulties experienced in the performance of assigned duties. Every level in the chain of command is an integral part of a team. Members at each level must do their part to make sure their command functions effectively. Flight deck operations are a good example of the effects of proper organization. Ships could never carry out these operations without superior organization. Every person knowing where to report, what job to do, and who to tell when things go wrong—that's organization.
A1. The three military departments of the Department of Defense (DoD) are the- a. Navy, b. Army, and c. Air Force.
A2. Some aspects of a ship's organization covered by the Shipboard Organization and Regulations watches b. Coordination of evolutions and emergency procedures c. Conduct of personnel
A2. The four missions of the DoD are a. To support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic b. To ensure the security of the United States, its possessions, and areas vital to its interests c. To uphold and advance the national policies and interests of the United States d. To safeguard the internal security of the United States
A1. The two elements of a ship's organization are the- a. Battle organization b. Administration organization
A2. The information contained in the
A3. The two main objectives of the Navy are to— a. Organize, train, equip, prepare, and maintain the readiness of the Navy and Marine corps forces to perform military missions
b. To support the Navy and Marine Corps forces as well as the forces of other military departments
A4. The three basic components of the Department of the Navy are—
a. Battle organization includes the numbers and specialties the unit needs to fulfill its wartime missions b. Administration organization makes sure the ship can fight or carry out its mission; training, maintenance, and routine operations are covered A3. The responsibilities of the departments are— a. Navigation—Safe navigation and piloting of the ship b. Operations—In charge of all radar, sonar, and communications equipment on the ship. Operations collects and evaluates combat and operational information and conducts electronic warfare c. Engineering-Operation, care, and maintenance of all propulsion and auxiliary machinery d. Supply—Operates the general mess and ship’s store; manages clothing and small stores issue room; maintains pay records; and orders and receives general stores, supplies, spare parts, and ship's equipment e. Weapons/Deck/Combat Systems—Respon sibilities depend on type of ship. department—Operation, care, and maintenance of ships armament and weapons fire-control equipment 2) Deck department—Responsible for deck
A5. The U.S. Coast Guard operates under the following two departments:
A1. Aboard ship, the ship's organization and regulations can be found in a publication known as the Shipboard Organization and Regulations Manual, which is based on the Standard Organization and Regulations of the U.S. Navy.
A5. The branch officer is responsible to the division officer.
A1. The five areas that affect the chain of command
d. Drug and alcohol program advisor (DAPA) e. Command master chief (CM/C) A10. The department head is responsible for and reports to the CO on matters that affect his/her department including administrative matters, operational readiness, and general condition of the equipment. A11. The division is the basic unit of a shipboard organization. A12. Division officer duties include a. Inspecting division personnel, spaces, equipment, and supplies b. Maintaining copies of division orders and bills and displaying them in conspicuous places c. Training division personnel and preparing
a. Responsibility b. Accountability
A2. In your organization, you can find out about the chain of command by asking someone in the administration office.
To ensure safety at sea, the best that science can devise and that naval organization can -C.W. Nimitz Letter to U.S. Pacific Fleet 13 February 1945
heavy weights and cargo, underway a are considered deck seamanship.
• Boat seamanship, as the name implies, concerns the handling of boats.
At this stage in your Navy career, you're learning thousands of things entirely new to you. You're probably finding it hard to assign relative importance to them. The importance of these skills and knowledge will become more obvious the longer you're in the Navy. This is true because the most important things will be emphasized in your day-to-day living. If you're not assigned to the deck force, you may think that seamanship is not important. Well, you're wrong! Seamanship ties every member of the Navy together. The uniform worn by Navy members, from seaman to admiral, implies that the wearer has a certain degree of proficiency in the art of seamanship. The fact that you may later become an Electronics Technician doesn't change the fact that you're first a seaman and then a technician. Be as proud of your ability as a seaman as you are of your ability to perform your other duties.
• Marlinespike seamanship concerns the use and care of line and consists of forming knots, making splices, and fashioning useful and decorative articles from small stuff and twine.
Learning Objective: When you finish this chapter, you will be able to
• Identify deck equipment and recognize their purpose.
Even though you don't work on deck everyday, there will be times, particularly on small ships, when you will be required to assist the deck force. You may have to carry stores, assist in replenishment-at-sea operations, assist in mooring to or untying a ship from the pier, and so forth. When working as part of the deck force, you'll be expected to have a general idea of what's going on, how and why a task is being accomplished, and be able to carry out orders intelligently. Therefore, take every opportunity to observe and learn as much as you can about seamanship. This chapter provides only basic seamanship information.
Deck equipment consists of all equipment used in the application of deck seamanship, which is work normally performed by the deck force. You need to know shipboard equipment and terminology because you may be called on to assist the deck force in various seamanship evolutions. To help you, some of the more familiar items of deck equipment are discussed in this section.
In this chapter, seamanship is divided into the following basic sections—deck, boat, and marlinespike seamanship.
Ground tackle is the equipment used in anchoring and mooring with anchors. It includes anchors, anchor cables and chains, and associated equipment, such as chain stoppers, bending shackles, outboard swivel shots, and detachable links. Figure 7-1 shows a typical ground tackle arrangement on a forecastle.
• Deck seamanship concerns the general work that goes on about the ship's deck and the equipment used. Anchoring, mooring, rigging and handling Page 14
Anchors can be defined by their stowage locations aboard ship or by their type of construction. Bower anchors are carried on the bow and are secured (housed) in the hawsepipes. Stern anchors are carried on the stern. On landing ships and craft, stern anchors are secured to the stern and are used to help pull away from beaches. The most common types of anchors used aboard ship are the stockless and the lightweight (or stock-in-crown) anchors. The two anchors shown in figure 7-2 are of Navy design. The stockless types are used chiefly as bow anchors (bowers) on most Navy ships. Originally, the lightweight types were used only on small boats and as stern anchors of landing ships and craft. However, recently they are carried as bowers for several types of vessels.
Modern Navy anchor chain consists of studded links of high strength steel. (Studs are crosspieces of metal forged or welded in the center of the links to prevent the chain from kinking.) Chains are made up of 15-fathom
Figure 7-3.—Horizontal shaft anchor windlass.
Rat guards are hinged conical metal shields secured around mooring lines. They are used to prevent rats from coming aboard ship. The bowline and forward spring lines prevent the ship from drifting astern. The stern line and after spring lines prevent the ship from drifting forward. Look at figure 7-5. Here, lines 1, 3, and 5 are called forward lines; lines 2, 4, and 6 are called after lines. When secured, these lines tend to breast the ship in. The forward and after spring lines are used to prevent the ship from drifting forward or aft.
Figure 7-4.-A rigged accommodation ladder.
Brow is the Navy term for gangplank. Brows are ramps used between ships and between a ship and pier. They may be simply two or three wooden planks fastened together, or they may be elaborate affairs with handrails and wheels at one or both ends to prevent a ship's motion from unduly affecting the positioning of the brow.
The various types of line and wire rope are Teamwork is essential in carrying out the mooring operation. Lines must not be kinked or fouled. Keep control of the lines and avoid dipping them into the water. Remember, observe all safety precautions! If the ship is to remain moored for a long period, lines are doubled up and bound together with marline hitches, and rat guards are placed on each line. Look at figure 7-6. To provide protection to the side of the ship while it is alongside a pier, camels (large wooden logs or rectangular structures) (views B and C) are often placed between the pier and the ship. Fenders (large cylindrical objects of rubber or fibrous material) (views A and D) are swung over the side of the ship to give bumper support against damage whenever a ship lies alongside another ship or a pier.
A ship is moored when it's made fast to a buoy, when it's between two buoys, when it's between two anchors, or when it's secured by lines alongside a pier or another ship. The lines used in mooring a ship alongside a pier are shown in figure 7-5. Well in advance of mooring, the lines should be faked down, fore and aft, each near the chock through which it passes in preparation for passing
EXTRUDED CYLINDRICAL RUBBER FENDER (TYP)
Ships that are at anchor or moored to a buoy rig out their boat booms for the purpose of mooring their boats well clear of the side. This method of securing is known as hauling out to the boom. Forward booms are called lower booms; after booms are called quarter booms. The boat boom shown in figure 7-8 is a spar that is secured to a gooseneck by a pin on the side of the ship. This arrangement allows free motion fore and aft. The outboard end of the boom hangs from a wire vang and tackle combination called the topping lift. Fore-and-aft motion is controlled by lines called forward and after guys.
Figure 7-6.—Protection for the side of a ship.
Boat seamanship is much more than a knowledge of the kinds of boats in operation in the Navy. Boat crews are responsible for the safe operation and upkeep of their craft and must receive training in a number of areas. Some of the techniques to be mastered require much practice and experience before a boat crew can become accomplished in their assigned duties. If you are assigned to duties as a member of a boat crew, you should study the Seaman and Boatswain's Mate 3 & 2 training manuals and complete the required personnel qualification standards (PQS).
Boats used by the Navy are of three general groups—support craft, combatant craft, and boats in general. Each group may be determined by its assigned mission and by its type, design, and construction. Chapter 8 has detailed information about these craft.
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understanding and correct response to such terms could save valuable time.
Because the majority of Navy personnel are concerned with small boats only in the role of passengers, this section is written from the standpoint of passengers, rather than crew members. Every Sailor should be familiar with the following boat safety precautions:
Abaft. Any part of the boat aft of amidships. the bow and stern and the sides of the boat.
Athwartships. When something is said to be athwartships, it's across the boat from side to side.
Obey all orders from the coxswain and boat officer. • Embark in a quiet, orderly manner and move as far forward as possible. Once embarked, stay in place. Keep all parts of your body in the boat; do not perch on the gunwales.
Forward end (fore). The forward end (fore) of the boat is the bow.
• Don't engage in horseplay.
• Never needlessly distract the attention of crew members from their duties.
• Don't sit on life jackets—to do so mats the filler and reduces buoyancy.
Inboard. Inboard usually describes the area inside the boat or an object nearer the centerline of the boat. Outboard. Outboard describes the area furthermost from the boat's centerline or beyond the side of a boat. Starboard. When facing forward of the boat, your right-hand side is the starboard. Port. When you are facing forward of the boat, your left-hand side is the port. Figure 7-13 shows a 26-foot personnel boat with features that are similar to most Navy boats. By studying the nomenclature shown in figure 7-13, you will become familiar with much of the deck and hull equipment used on Navy boats. The glossary in appendix I of this training material will help you identify some of the terms.
• When told to do so, don your life jacket immediately.
• During heavy weather, boat loads must be reduced.
• If told not to embark or requested to disembark, do so without argument
• If a boat swamps or capsizes, don't panic. Fear is transmitted easily from person to person, and a terrified individual drowns easily. Never strike out alone.
• Never strike out alone. Stay with the boat or huddle with other passengers because a large group can be found much more easily than individual swimmers.
TRANSOM FREEBOARD WATERLINE
STEM -STARBOARD SIDELIGHT -CUTWATER
BOAT TERMS AND NOMENCLATURE
Boat crew members often develop the habit of calling objects and the activities around them by their proper names. In times of emergency, your
Figure 7-13.-Boat nomenclature.
Q1. List two types of combatant craft.
they actually shrouded the tops of the masts from the view of an observer on deck, hence, the name shroud. Stays, the fore and aft supports, were not so numerous, but there were several on each ship. Running rigging, tackles used to hoist and trim (adjust) the sails and handle cargo and other heavy weights, spanned the areas between sails, yards and decks, and yards and bulwarks. Lines secured the guns to the ship's sides and prevented them from rolling or recoiling across the gun decks. Gun tackles were used to haul the guns back into battery (firing position) after the guns were fired. Even the anchor cable was made of line. Obviously, line played a vital role in those ships.
Q2. As a boat passenger, you should obey the orders of what person(s)?
Q3. If a boat capsizes while you're a passenger, you shouldn't panic for what reason?
In today's Navy, line isn't used as much as on sailing ships; however, it's still an important and expensive item. Therefore, every Sailor needs to learn the proper use and care of all kinds of line and wire rope. Today's Navy uses line made of fiber (natural and artificial); wire rope made of steel, phosphor bronze, and other metal; and a combination of wire and fiber (spring-lay).
Q4. What does the term athwartships mean?
Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter, you will be able to —
• Identify the purpose of various types of line and rope.
Lines made from a variety of natural fibers have seen service in the Navy, but most have been replaced by lines made of synthetic fibers. The two most commonly used lines made of natural fibers are marline (tarred hemp fibers) and manila (abaca plant fibers). Manila line was formerly authorized for use only where great strength was required, such as mooring lines, towing lines, personnel transfers at sea and boatfalls. Fiber ropes made of tarred hemp are used in seizing, worming, serving ropes, and lashing. For most applications, nylon line (synthetic fiber) has replaced manila. Nylon line is about 2 1/2 times as strong as manila of the same size, has a greater strength and elasticity, and has a higher resistance to weather.
• Recognize the procedures used to tie knots, bends and hitches, and to make splices.
• Identify the procedures for securing at sea. Marlinespike seamanship is the art of handling and working all kinds of fiber and wire rope. Rope is a general term and can include both fiber and wire rope. In the Navy, Sailors generally refer to fiber rope as line, and wire rope is referred to as rope, wire rope, or wire. A better definition of a line is as follows: A line is a length of rope, either fiber or wire, that is in use or has been cut for a specific purpose, such as a lifeline, heaving line, or lead line. A few such lines have the word rope in their names, such as wheel rope, foot rope, and bell rope. , In sailing ships, the fiber ropes that gave athwartship support for the masts were so numerous that
Wire rope usually is substituted for line where the line is subjected to a great deal of wear, weathering, or , heat, and where greater strength is required. Spring lay is used for mooring lines, particularly at the bow and stern.
Any rope that is not wire is fiber rope. Except in a few instances where it has special uses, fiber rope is never called anything but line aboard ship.
Lines are classified by both their construction and their material. Nearly all line used in the Navy is three-strand line. Line is made by twisting fibers into threads (or yarns), threads into strands, and strands into rope. Taking the process further, ropes twisted together form a cable—an item seldom seen nowadays. Most of our lines are three-strand and right-laid; that is, as you look along a line, the twist is to the right. During construction of natural fiber line, a lubricant is added that also serves as a preservative.
Large line is measured by circumference. Line 1 3/4 inches and under in circumference, called small stuff, is identified by the number of threads in the line. A line with twenty-four thread is 1 1/2 inches in circumference. Inasmuch as the numbers of threads per strand are equal, thread numbers in a three-strand line are divisible by 3—24, 21, 18, and so on, down to the smallest—6 thread (3/4 inch). Line from 1 3/4 inches to about 4 inches is manufactured in 1/4-inch graduations. The length of all line and wire rope is usually measured in feet.
The chart shown below lists tips on the care of natural fiber line. You should be thoroughly familiar with them and observe them at all times.
Dry line before stowing it.
Stow wet or damp line in an unventilated compartment or cover it so that it cannot dry. Mildew will form and weaken the fibers.
Subject line to intense heat nor unnecessarily allow it Protect line from weather when possible. to lie in the hot sun. The lubricant (natural oils) will dry out, thus shortening the useful life of the line. Subject a line to loads exceeding its safe working Use chafing gear (canvas, short lengths of old firehose, load. To do so may not break the line, but individual and so on) where line (or wire) runs over sharp edges or fibers will break, reducing the strength. rough surfaces. Allow line to bear on sharp edges or run over rough Slack off taut lines when it rains. Wet line shrinks, and surfaces. The line will be cut or worn, reducing the if the line is taut, the resulting strain may be enough to strength and useful life. break some of the fibers.
Most of the tips for the care of natural fiber line should be observed with nylon line. Nylon, however, is not subject to mildew. It should be scrubbed if it becomes slippery because of oil or grease.
A stretch of one third of its length is normal for nylon line under safe working loads. Nylon stretches about 50 percent before it will break. Because of its elasticity, nylon line breaks with a decided snapback; therefore, stand well clear when it is under a heavy strain.
Whippings are bindings on the ends of rope that keep the rope from unlaying. On line, whippings are made with cord, such as sail twine or with marline. The ends of all line must be whipped because of the frequent need for passing the ends through rings and pad eyes and for reeving them through blocks. Unlaid and frayed ends of line are unsightly and unseamanlike and waste many feet of line. Knots or backsplices in the end of a line are not allowed, nor are friction tape or wire whippings. Knots and backsplices will jam in a block; friction tape will not hold for long; and wire may tear a line-handler's hands.
Snapback is extremely dangerous and has caused severe injuries and death. The utmost caution must be observed when working with or around all synthetic lines.
The most secure whipping is made with the aid of a sail needle and palm. However, an excellent whipping can be made without a needle if the procedure shown in figure 7-14 is followed. First, lay one end of the whipping along the line, bind it down with a couple of turns, and snug up the edges. Then lay the other end on in an opposite direction with the body portion of the whipping, continuing with several more turns from the bight of the whipping. The whipping length should be about equal to the diameter of the line being whipped. Snug up the edges and cut off the twine close to the line. This type of whipping is a temporary one. If the line is to be used frequently, a permanent whipping should be used.
The basic unit of wire rope construction is the individual wire, which is made of steel or other metal and comes in various sizes. These wires are laid together to form strands. The number of wires in a strand varies according to the purpose of the rope. A number of strands are laid together to form the wire rope itself.
KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES
Except among seamen, the word knot is ordinarily used as an all-inclusive term, covering the more specific use of knots plus bends and hitches. Even seamen find it hard to clearly define the terms knot, bend, and hitch because their functions overlap like the bowline knot and many other instances. In general, however, the terms may be defined as follows: Knots. Knots are used to form eyes or to secure a cord or line around an object, such as a package. In other words, the line is bent to itself. Hitches. Hitches are used to bend a line to or around an object, such as a ring, spar, or stanchion. Bends. Bends are used to secure two lines together. All Navy personnel should know the square knot, bowline, single- and double-becket bends, round turn and two half hitches, and clove hitch. Navy personnel should know when these knots, bends, and hitches are used. Before reading further, look at figure 7-15, w shows a few terms that make it easier for you to understand the following procedures.
Figure 7-16.-Square knot.
The bowline, with its many variations, has a lot of uses. Its chief use is to form an eye; but it can also be used to secure a line to a pad eye, to secure another ring around a stanchion or other object, or to bend two lines together. To tie a bowline, you should- and the standing part in the left hand (opposite, if left-handed). Assuming you are using small stuff, the length of line between your hands should be about 2 feet. 2. Throw an overhand loop counterclockwise near your left hand (clockwise near your right hand, if you are left-handed). 3. Grasp the loop formed and hold it. Pass the bitter end up through the bottom of the loop, as shown in figure 7-17, view A. 4. Pull the bitter end up through the loop, and pass it around behind the standing part of the line (fig. 7-17, view B). 5. Pass the bitter end down through the loop beside the line that was pulled up through the loop (fig. 7-17, view C). 6. To tighten the knot, grasp the standing part in one hand and the two lines passed through the loop with the other hand, and pull.
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4. Pass the end under itself, and the hitch is complete.
The chief value of the becket bend is its use in binding together two lines of different sizes. If there is a great difference in sizes or the strain on the line is to be great, always use a double becket bend. To fashion a single becket bend, you should the other line up through it, as shown in figure 7-18, view A. 2. Pass the end around behind both parts of the bight and back under itself (fig. 7-18, view B). Figure 7-18, view C, shows how you make a double becket bend by simply taking another turn around the bight. (These bends are also known as sheet bends.)
Figure 7-19.-Tying a clove hitch.
Another way to make this hitch is to form two underhand loops. Lay the second loop on top of the first. This method is the usual way to form the hitch when it can be slipped over the end of the object to which the line is to be secured.
Round Turn and Two Half Hitches
AROUND AGAIN BACK UNDER-DOUBLE BECKET BEND
The chief advantage of the round turn and two half hitches over other hitches is that it won't slip along the object to which it is secured. It's made by taking a round turn and making two half hitches (fig. 7-20). (The two half hitches actually consist of a clove hitch taken around the line itself.)
Figure 7-18.—Single- and double-becket bends.
When splicing synthetic line, such as nylon, it is sometimes easier to use tape on the strand ends. Large line, such as mooring lines, should be seized or bound together at the point where unlaying stops.
“Coiling down a line” means laying it up in circles, roughly one on top of the other. Faking down a line is laying it up in the same manner as for coiling down, except that it is laid out in long, flat bights, one alongside the other, instead of in round coils. The main advantage of working with line that is faked down is that it runs off more easily. To flemish down a line, start with the bitter end, and lay on deck successive circles of line in the manner of a clock spring with the bitter end in the center. Right-laid line is laid down clockwise; left-laid line is laid down counterclockwise.
To form the eye, bend the line back until the eye is the desired size. This is the point where your splicing begins. Follow the steps shown in figure 7-22 by tucking each whipped strand under one strand of the line. Pull the slack out of each tuck and check the size of the eye. (If a thimble is to be used, insert it at this point.) Follow the “over one strand, under the next procedure until you complete at least three tucks for natural fiber line or four tucks for synthetic line. (NOTE: The splice can be smoothed by rolling it on deck under your foot.)
After unlaying and whipping the strands as described for the eye splice, seize each line where the unlaying stops. Now butt the two lines together so that they are interlaced, and follow the steps shown in figure 7-23.
Upon completion of the splice, the excess length of each strand must be cut off. When natural fiber line is used for the splice, the strands can simply be cut off near the line. With synthetic line, a short length of each strand should be left intact. The ends of the threads of each strand are then melted together over an open flame to prevent the strands from frazzling. When you melt the ends of the strands, don't allow any of the melted synthetic line to drip on you, your clothing, another person, or anything that might present a fire hazard. Also, observe all safety precautions pertaining to the use of open flames aboard your ship or station.
With large lines, you must put on a temporary seizing where they join to keep them from suddenly coming apart. It's better to do that with small lines, too, until you get the hang of holding them together while
A short splice is used where two lines are to be permanently joined, provided a slight enlargement of the diameter is not important. When properly made, the short splice is much stronger than any knot.
Once your seizing is on, tuck over and under the same way you finish off an eye splice. Three tucks (natural fiber) or four tucks (synthetic fiber) on each side of the seizing are ample. Remove the seizing, cut off the ends of the strands, and melt them (if appropriate) as previously described.
• Make the lashings taut so that the object will not “work” with the pitch and roll of the ship. Frequently check all lashings, and tighten as necessary.
• Use chafing gears on sharp corners and rough surfaces.
Never make fast your lashings to electric cables or small slightly secured pipes, lagged pipes, door and hatch dogs or hinges, electric motors, lifeline stanchions, or anything not solidly secured.
• Never block access to vents, fireplugs, switches, valves, doors, or hatches. Never underestimate the force of the sea! Secure everything properly the first time and be safe.
Becoming an accomplished seaman takes time, hard work, and patience. At some time in your career, you could be a member of a detail where handling lines will be required, or you may work with deck equipment and lines on a daily basis. Knowing how to use deck equipment and handle lines safely is essential. Lines are used in the Navy for many reasons—from mooring aircraft carriers to securing bookshelves at sea. Without the wide variety of lines available to us, our way of doing our jobs would be extremely difficult. Each piece of deck equipment or fitting has been designed for a specific purpose. A set of bits on a destroyer is used primarily for mooring, where a set of bits on a tug is used almost exclusively for towing. Becoming familiar with deck equipment and its use, and knowing how to makeup and use lines is not only a sign of good seamanship but could, in case of emergencies, make the difference between saving or losing the ship or your shipmates. Each person in the Navy is first and foremost a seaman and then a technician in his or her specific rate. Become proficient in seamanship. It may help you in your daily duties and most certainly assist you in times of difficulty.
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SHIPIAIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS
This ship is built to fight. You'd better know how. -Admiral Arleigh Burke
The air fleet of an enemy will never get within striking distance of our coast as long as our aircraft carriers are able to carry the preponderance of air power to the sea. -Rear Admiral W. A. Moffett
• Identify terms used aboard ship.
• Recall the names used for superstructures and components of ship’s hulls to include decks and doors and hatches.
• Identify structural terms. In civilian life you used terms such as upstairs, downstairs, windows, floors, ceilings, walls, and hallways. In the Navy, you must learn to use Navy language. To use civilian terminology aboard ships marks you as a landlubber—a scornful term used to describe those who know nothing of the sea.
The U.S. Navy has thousands of vessels and aircraft in its inventory. They range from small harbor patrol boats to huge super carriers and from helicopters to giant transport planes. You won't be expected to know the characteristics of each one, but you should be able to recognize the type of ship or aircraft you see. You should also be able to identify its mission and armament and have an idea about its size. In this chapter, you'll learn about the major classes and the major types of ships and aircraft the Navy operates and what their characteristics and missions are. You will also learn some of the more common terms used to identify structural features and the terminology used to express direction and locations aboard ship. Before you learn about the types and classes of ships, you need some background information about ships in general. To take advantage of scientific advances, the fleet is making changes. Cruise missiles, close-in defense systems, and multirole radar units are replacing conventional electronic and weapons systems. The Navy's new submarines and aircraft carriers are nuclear-powered. Therefore, steaming endurance is limited only by the replenishment of necessary supplies and food. Many ships have been modernized to perform a wide variety of missions and to accomplish old missions more efficiently. During overhaul, older ships are outfitted with new radar, fire control, and communications systems. hulls are strengthened and power plants reworked to extend the lives of these ships. However, it's not economically sound to convert all ships to nuclear power.
Lengthwise direction on a ship is fore and aft; crosswise is athwartships. The front of the ship is the bow; the rearmost is the stern. To move forward toward the bow is to go forward; to move toward the stern is to go aft. Anything that is more toward the bow than another object is forward of it, and anything that is more toward the stern is abaft (behind) the other object. A ship is divided in half lengthwise by a centerline. When you face forward along the centerline, everything to your right is to starboard; everything to your left is to port. Fixtures and equipment take the name of the side on which they are located, such as the starboard gangway and the port anchor. When you go toward the centerline, you go inboard. An object nearer the centerline is inboard of another object and that object is outboard of the first. The section around the midpoint area is called amidships (also called the waist). The extreme width of a ship, usually in the midship area, is its beam.
Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter, you will be able to
In this section, you will learn some of the terms related to ship construction. These terms won't tell you "how to" build a ship; however, by learning the terms, you will understand the major structural characteristics of the hull, decks, and superstructure of a ship.
You never go downstairs in a ship; you always go below. To go up is to go topside. However, if you climb the mast, stacks, rigging, or any other area above the highest solid structure, you go aloft. The bridge is topside and usually forward. It contains control and visual communication stations. Human beings live in a ship or on board a ship. Inanimate objects, stores, and equipment are aboard a ship. Similarly, you board a ship or go on board. Stores, ammunition, and so on are taken aboard and struck below. An object hanging against the side, bow, or stern is over the side, bow, or stern. An object in the water but not touching the ship is outboard of or off the ship (off the starboard side, off the port bow, and so on). An object in front of a ship is ahead of it. An object to the rear is astern, never in back. Cooking is done in the galley, not in the kitchen. The fore-and-aft inclination of a ship is the ship's trim-down by the head or down by the stern. To trim a submarine is to adjust water in the variable ballast tanks, or trim tanks. A ship is said to list if it has a permanent or semipermanent inclination to one side or the other. This is a less than optimum condition.
Figure 8-1 shows the hull structure of a cruiser. You should refer to this figure as you read this section. The hull is the supporting body of a ship. Think of the hull as an envelope. Inside the hull are strengthening members that prevent the envelope from collapsing. The hull also contains partitions that form machinery, berthing, messing, and other spaces. The keel is the backbone of the ship. The keel of most steel ships does not extend below the ship's bottom; hence, it is known as a flat keel. Its usual shape is that of an I-beam. All other parts used in constructing the hull are attached, either directly or indirectly, to the keel.
purpose is to reduce rolling of the ship. (A ship rolls from side to side; it pitches when it goes up and down fore and aft; it yaws when the bow swings to port and starboard because of wave action.) The upper edges of the sides, where the sheer strakes join the main deck, are called the gunwales (rhymes with funnels). The foremost part of the ship, where the gunwales join the stem, is known as the eyes of the ship. The port and starboard quarters are located where the gunwales curve inward to the sternpost. The water level along the hull of a ship afloat is the waterline. The vertical distance from the bottom of the keel to the waterline is the ship's draft. Freeboard is the distance from the waterline to the main deck. Figures 8-2 and 8-3 show various parts of the hull and deck.
The athwartships structure consists of transverse frames and decks. The decks run outboard from the keel to the turn of the bilge (where the bottom turns upward). Here, they are attached to the transverse frames, which then extend upward to the main deck. Frames running parallel with the keel are called longitudinals. From the turn of the bilge up the sides they are also called stringers. The network of floors and longitudinals resembles a honeycomb (known as cellular construction), which greatly strengthens the bottom of the ship. When plating covers the honeycomb, double bottoms are formed. The space between the inner and outer bottoms (known as tanks) is used for liquid stowage. Planks laid upon the tank tops are called ceilings. The forward end of the keel, which is extended upward, is called the stem. The after end of the keel has a similar extension called the sternpost. The part of the stem above water is the prow; the forward edge of the stem is the cutwater. The interior of a ship is divided into compartments by vertical walls, called bulkheads. Bulkheads run both transversely and longitudinally. Most bulkheads are merely partitions; but spaced at appropriate intervals, they are transverse watertight bulkheads. These bulkheads extend from the keel to the main deck and from side to side to provide extra stiffening and to partition the hull into independent watertight sections. Large ships have a series of longitudinal side bulkheads and tanks that provide protection against torpedoes. Usually, the outer tanks are filled with oil or water, and the inner tanks (called voids) are empty. The innermost bulkhead is called the holding bulkhead. If a torpedo were to hit the ship, the outer tanks, although ruptured, would absorb enough energy from the explosion that the holding bulkhead would remain intact, thus preventing flooding of vital spaces. The plates that form the ship's hull are called strakes. Strakes are fastened to the framework in longitudinal rows. The keel forms the center strake. Strakes are lettered, beginning with the A strake on either side of the keel and extending up to the main deck. Some of the strakes also have names. The A strake is called the starboard strake; the strake along the turn of the bilge is the bilge strake; the uppermost strake is the sheer strake. A protecting keel running along the bottom near the turn of the bilge is called a bilge keel. Its
RUDDER OVERHANG PROPELLER STRUT PROPELLER SHAFT
WATERLINE HAWS EPIPE FREEBOARD DRAFT STEM
Generally speaking, you do not use the word room. For instance, you never refer to the space where you sleep as the bedroom or where you eat as the dining room. These spaces are called the berthing compartment or space and the messdeck. A steel deck is made of steel plating (strakes) running fore and aft. The outboard strake in the deck plating is composed of stringer plates that are welded or riveted to the side plates of the ship adding additional strength to the ship's sides. Decks are supported by athwartships deck beams and by fore-and-aft deck girders. Further deck support is provided throughout the ship by vertical steel pillars called stanchions. Stanchions are mounted one above the other or one above a strength bulkhead. (The short posts used as lifeline supports also are called stanchions.) Look at figure 8-2. Decks are usually slightly bowed from the gunwale to the centerline to provide for water drainage and to strengthen the deck. The arch so formed is called camber. A deck or part of a deck exposed to the weather is called a weather deck (fig. 8-3). Bulwarks are a sort of solid fence along the gunwale of the main (weather) deck. The bulwarks are fitted with freeing ports (scuppers) to permit water to run off during heavy weather.
repair equipment in addition to the facilities for the control of flooding, sprinkling, and pumping if the ship is damaged. The following are definitions that relate to decks in modern ships (the location of each deck is also given): Companionways (ladders). Companionways, or ladders, lead from one deck level to another. They may or may not be covered by hatches. Flats. Flats are plating or gratings installed only to provide working or walking surfaces above bilges. Forecastle (pronounced folk' sel) deck. The forecastle deck is the deck above the main deck at the bow. Ships that don't have raised forecastles are called flush-deckers. In them, the part of the deck from the stem to just abaft the anchor windlass is the forecastle. Gallery deck. The gallery deck is the first half deck or partial deck below the flight deck. Half deck. The half deck is any partial deck between complete decks. Levels. A level is a general term used to designate deck heights above the main deck. The first level above the main deck is the 01 (pronounced oh-one) level, the second the 02 level, and so on. Different decks at a particular level, however, carry different names. For example, both a poop deck and a boat deck (usually) are on the 01 level. Platforms. Platforms are partial decks below the lowest complete deck. They are usually broken to admit machinery and are called platform decks or just platforms. They are numbered downward, as first platform, second platform, and so on. Poop deck. The poop deck is a partial deck above the main deck located all the way aft. A flush-decker does not have a poop deck, so the stern area of the main deck on a flush-decker is called the main deck aft, or the fantail. Quarterdeck. The quarterdeck is not an actual deck, but an area designated by the CO for the conduct of official functions. It is the station of the officer of the deck in port, and its location depends on how the ship is moored or which side of the ship is tied up to
A deck that extends from side to side and stem to stern is a complete deck. On an aircraft carrier, the uppermost complete deck is the flight deck from which aircraft take off and land. In all ships but aircraft carriers, the uppermost complete deck is the main deck. On an aircraft carrier, the hangar deck is the main deck. The hangar deck is the deck on which aircraft are stowed and serviced when not on the flight deck. The first complete deck below the main deck is the second deck; the next, the third deck; the next, the fourth deck; and so on. Half decks or 'tween decks take the number of the deck above and have the fraction 1/2 added to them.
A strength deck is just what the name implies. It is a complete deck (usually the main deck) designed to carry not only deck loads on it but also to withstand the hull stresses. A damage control deck (on most ships the second or third deck) is the lowest deck having access through the main transverse bulkheads, from forward to aft. This deck usually contains damage control main
Superstructure deck. The superstructure deck is a partial deck above the main, upper, or forecastle deck that might not extend to the sides of the ship; or if it does, it does not have side plating carried up to it. Upper deck. The upper deck is a partial deck extending from side to side above the main deck amidships. It is part of the superstructure, which is the part of a ship's structure above the deck. The superstructure does not include masts, yards, stacks, and related parts. The side plating extends upward to the upper dec Well deck. The well deck is the forward part of the main deck between upper deck and forecastle and aft between the upper deck and the poop deck.
Figure 8-5.—Watertight door with individually operated dogs.
Access through bulkheads is provided by doors and through decks by hatches. Watertight (WT) doors, as the term implies, form a watertight seal when properly closed. All doors leading to weather decks are of the watertight variety, as are those in structural (watertight) bulkheads. (See fig. 8-4.) The doors are held closed by fittings called dogs, which bear up tight on wedges. A rubber gasket around the edge of the door presses against a knife-edge around the doorframe forming a watertight seal when all dogs are properly seated (dogged down). Some doors have individually operated dogs, as shown in figure 8-5. Other doors are quick acting types, for which a handwheel or lever operates all the dogs at once, as shown in figure 8-6. Some WT doors have openings, called passing scuttles, through which ammunition is passed. These scuttles (small tubelike openings) are flashproof as well as watertight.
Figure 8-4.-Dogs and gasket for watertight door.
Figure 8-6.—Quick-acting watertight door. Page 18
by hatch boards or a mechanical/hydraulic hatch cover. A cargo hatch is protected from the weather by a canvas tarpaulin (tarp for short). The tarp is pulled over the hatch boards and down the sides of the coaming around the hatch and then battened down. To batten down is to secure the tarp by wedging battens (slats of wood or steel) that hold it against the side of the coaming.
Hatches are horizontal openings for access through decks. A hatch is set with its top surface either flush with the deck or on a coaming (frame) raised above the deck. Hatches don't operate with quick-acting devices. They must be secured with individually operated dogs or drop bolts. Figure 8-7 shows a typical hatch with an escape scuttle, which is a round opening with a quick-acting closure. An escape scuttle may also be found in the deck (or overhead) of a compartment that otherwise has only one means of access. Manholes of the hinged type are miniature hatches provided in decks for occasional access to water, fuel tanks, and voids. Bolted manholes are sections of steel plate that are gasketed and bolted over deck access openings. Manholes are also found in bulkheads but are not as common as deck manholes. A cargo hatch and hold are shown in figure 8-8. The hatch is a large opening in the deck that permits loading and unloading of equipment and materials. It is covered
The solid part of a ship above the main deck is called the superstructure (fig. 8-9). The masts, stacks, and related gear above the superstructure are referred to as the ship's top hamper (fig. 8-10). Masts are of three general designs-pole, tripod, and cage. On a single-masted ship, the mast is called simply the mast. A two-masted ship has a foremast and mainmast. A three-masted ship has a foremast, mainmast, and mizzenmast, in that order from forward. Stacks (never chimneys or funnels) are the large pipes that carry off smoke and gases from the boilers. The wider lower section of a stack is an uptake. a
Masts are used to support radio and radar antennas, signal halyards (lines used for hoisting signal flags signal lights, and booms). Stays and shrouds, together with other wires used for similar purposes on stacks, masts, and so on, are known as the ship's standing rigging. Lines or wires used for hoisting, lowering, or controlling booms, boats, and so on, are known as running rigging.
national ensign is flown at the peak while a ship is under way. When a ship is anchored or moored, the national ensign flies from the flagstaff at the stern, and the union jack flies from the jackstaff at the bow.
The bridge, from which the ship is controlled while under way, is located in the superstructure. The bridge contains the primary equipment used by the bridge watch personnel to control (conn) the movement of the ship: helm (steering control), lee helm (speed control), and radar repeaters. Ships also have a secondary conning station from which control can be maintained if the bridge is put out of commission. Some larger classes of ships have, in addition to the navigation bridge (conn), a flag bridge for the use of the squadron commander or admiral and staff.
Look at figure 8-10. The top of a mast is called the truck. A small sheave (a pulley, pronounced shiv) at the truck is used to run halyard lines for hoisting. The top of the foremast is the foretruck, and the top of the main-mast is the main truck. Commissioned ships of the U.S. Navy fly a commission pennant secured to a pigstick and hoisted to the truck. Ships that have radar antennas at the top of their masts fly the commission pennant from a sheave fixed in the highest convenient location.
Most foremasts have a light spar, called a yard, and mounted horizontally athwartships on their upper part. The port and starboard halves of a yard are the port and starboard yardarms. The yardarms carry a number of sheaves for signal halyards. Also, yardarms usually carry a set (two) of blinker lights, used (by means of a telegraph key) for signaling. The gaff is a light spar suspended at an angle abaft the upper part of the mainmast. The upper end of the gaff is the peak. The
The signal bridge (where Signalmen operate the signal lights, flags, and pennants) is normally located atop the bridge. On aircraft carriers, the signal bridge is abaft and usually one deck above the navigation bridge. Outboard, open ends of a bridge are called bridge wings. Located near the bridge is the chart house, where charts (maps) are stowed and worked on by the Quartermaster. Also nearby (on some ships) is the combat information center (CIC) manned by operations and combat systems department personnel. Page 19
COMPARTMENT DESIGNATION/DECK NUMBERING SYSTEM
Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter, you will be able to
Ship’s compartment designations consist of a deck a number, a frame number, the relationship of the compartment to the centerline, and a letter showing the use of the space. Where a compartment extends through two or more decks, the number of the lower deck is used. The frame number indicates the foremost bulkhead of the compartment. If the forward boundary is between frames, the frame number farthest forward within the compartment is used.
• Recall compartment designations.
• Recall deck lettering and numbering systems.
Every space in a ship (except minor spaces, such as pea coat lockers, linen lockers, and cleaning gear lockers) is assigned an identifying letter and number symbol. This symbol is marked on a label plate secured to the door, hatch, or bulkhead of the compartment. Compartments on the port side end in an even number and those on the starboard side end in an odd number (fig. 8-11). A zero precedes the deck number for all levels above the main deck. Figure 8-12 shows the system of numbering decks.
Compartments located on the centerline carry the number 0. Compartments to starboard are given odd numbers, and compartments to port are given even numbers. Where two or more compartments have the same deck and frame number, they have consecutively higher odd or even numbers, as applicable, numbering from the centerline outboard. For example, the first compartment to starboard is 1, the second is 3, and so on. To port of the centerline, they are numbered 2, 4, and so on. When the centerline passes through more than one compartment with the same frame number, the compartment having the forward bulkhead through which the centerline passes carries the number 0. Compartments above the main deck are numbered 01, 02, 03, as applicable, shown in figure 8-12.
The last part of the compartment number is the letter that identifies the primary use of the compartment. On dry and liquid cargo ships, a double letter is used for cargo holds to differentiate them from spaces containing the same commodity for use by the ship (for example, fuel oil). Compartment usage in the present system is shown in table 8-1.
Figure 8-11.—Compartment designations.
Control centers for ship CIC; plotting rooms; communications centers; pilothouse; and fire-control operations electronic equipment operating spaces; IC rooms (normally manned)
Engineering control Main machinery spaces; evaporator rooms; steering gear centers (normally manned) rooms; pump rooms; auxiliary machinery spaces; emergency generator rooms
Oil stowage compartments Fuel- , diesel- , and lubricating-oil compartments (for ship use)
Oil stowage compartments Compartments carrying various types of oil as cargo (cargo)
Q1. How is the size of a ship usually given?
Ship size. The size of a ship usually is given in terms of its displacement in long tons. Displacement means the weight of the volume of water that the ship displaces when afloat; in other words, the weight of a ship by itself. The Navy uses standard displacement, which is the weight of a ship when ready for sea. All weights given in this chapter are standard displacements, except where otherwise noted. Cargo ships usually are measured in light displacement (no cargo aboard) because of the wide difference in the weights of cargo carried.
Q2. What is meant by a ship's armor?
Q3. What term is used to indicate the speed of a ship?
Ship armament. Armament describes the offensive weapons a ship carries—guns, rockets, guided missiles, and planes.
Ship armor. Armor means protective armor-special steel installed along the sides of the ship, on a deck, and on some gun mounts and turrets.
Ships of the U.S. Navy are divided into four categories:
Ship speed. The speed of a ship is stated in knots. A knot is 1 nautical mile per hour (mph) or about 1 1/8 statute miles per hour. When a ship goes 20 nautical miles an hour, its speed is said to be 20 knots (but never 20 knots per hour). A land (or statute) mile is 5,280 feet. A nautical mile is about 6,080 feet, or roughly 2,000 yards. A ship traveling at 20 knots is, therefore, traveling at the rate of about 23 mph.
Ship class. Ships are said to be of a particular class. Do not confuse this characteristic with type, which is shown by a ship's designation. The Forrestal, for example, was the first of several aircraft carriers of the same general advanced type and configuration to be completed. The next three carriers completed after the Forrestal are of the Forrestal class; however, later CVs or CVNs (nuclear-powered carriers) of other types are different classes (such as the Kitty Hawk class, Nimitz class, and so forth).
Depending on size and type, combatant ships may have missions other than simply “slugging it out" with an enemy ship. Combatant ships are of two types—warships and other combatants. WARSHIPS.—Most warships are built primarily to attack an enemy with gunfire, missiles, or other weapons. There are exceptions, however, that you will see as we go along. The following types of ships are included in the warship category:
Ship categories. Ships of the U.S. Navy are divided into four categories that include combatant ships, auxiliary ships, combatant craft, and support craft.
Aircraft Carriers.—There are three types of aircraft carriers
1. Multipurpose aircraft carriers (CVs)
2. Multipurpose aircraft carriers (nuclear propulsion) (CVNs)
and embark about 75 aircraft. The larger Nimitz class displaces about 96,000 tons and embarks about 85 aircraft. There is also a big difference in ships company and air wing complement (personnel assigned). The Forrestal class has about 5,400 personnel assigned, while the Nimitz class has about 5,700. Most carriers have the following equipment/capabilities:
The job of the CV or CVN is to carry, launch, retrieve, and handle combat aircraft quickly and effectively. The aircraft carrier can approach the enemy at high speed, launch planes for the attack, and recover them. The attack carrier is an excellent long-range offensive weapon and is the center of the modern naval task force or task group. Figure 8-13 shows the USS Nimitz, and figure 8-14 shows aircraft flying over the USS Enterprise. The displacement and aircraft capacity of the older CVs is less than the newer nuclear-powered CVNs. The older Forrestal class CVs displace about 79,000 tons
• Angled flight decks • Steam catapults • Ability to launch and recover planes simultaneously • Large hangar deck for plane stowage • Deck-edge elevators to move aircraft rapidly between the hangars and flight decks • Extensive repair shops and storerooms • Fast-fueling equipment
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Photograph courtesy of LT Brian Douglas Figure 8-14.- Various aircraft from Carrier Wing Three fly over the USS Enterprise (CVN 65).
The emphasis is on speed (all carriers can do over 30 knots), endurance, and sea-keeping ability (ability to stay at sea for long periods under all conditions), plane-carrying capacity, and maintenance capability. Battleships.—The battleships have been decommissioned. However, they could be reactivated. Battleships participated in few surface engagements in World War II, but with their large number of antiaircraft guns, they proved to be excellent support ships in carrier task forces. Another major role was that of providing gunfire support of amphibious landings in both the Pacific and European theaters. Only their large-caliber guns could knock out heavily reinforced gun emplacements. They also provided gunfire support in the Korean conflict. Several battleships (BBs) were modernized to include additional armament such as Tomahawk and Harpoon missile systems or the Phalanx close-in weapons system (CIWS). Battleships were given state
names. However, since there is little likelihood of our building any more battleships, state names are being given to cruisers like the USS South Carolina (CGN 37) and to submarines (SSBNs) like the USS Ohio (SSBN 726) and USS Michigan (SSBN 727). Cruisers.-Cruisers are medium-sized, general-utility ships. They have a large cruising range and are capable of high speeds (over 30 knots). They serve as protective screens against surface and air attacks and also provide gunfire support for land operations. The two basic types of cruisers are the guided-missile cruiser (CG) and guided-missile cruiser (nuclear propulsion) (CGN). Cruisers displace about 10,000 tons. The CGs include cruisers with missiles, but some of these also have guns that are 5"/54 caliber. CGNs are the same as the CGs except that their main engines are nuclear-powered. Figures 8-15 and 8-16 show two cruisers.
Photograph courtesy of PH3 Jason D. Malcom Figure 8-15.—USS Philippine Sea (CG 58) comes alongside USS Enterprise during an under way replenishment.
The Ticonderoga (CG 47) class cruisers are built on the Spruance (DD 963) hull. Modern U.S. Navy guided-missile cruisers perform primarily a battle force role. These ships (fig. 8-16) are multimission surface combatants capable of supporting carrier battle groups, amphibious forces, operating independently, and as flagships of surface action groups. Because of their extensive combat capability, these ships have been designated as battle force capable. Destroyers.-Destroyers (DDs) and guided-missiles destroyers (DDGs) are multipurpose ships that are useful in almost any kind of naval operation. They are fast ships with a variety of armaments, but little or no armor. For protection, they depend on their speed and mobility. Their displacement varies from 2,425 tons to 7,800 tons. The principal mission of destroyers is to operate offensively and defensively against submarines and surface ships and to take defensive action against air attacks. They also provide gunfire support for amphibious assaults and perform patrol, search, and rescue missions.
Destroyers make up the Navy's largest group of similar types of ships. Only a few are mentioned so you will have some idea of the several types and classes. Spruance class destroyers. The Spruance (fig. 8-17) class destroyers displace 7,800 tons fully loaded. Each of these ships has two 5"/54-caliber guns, one Seasparrow missile launcher, one ASROC launcher, and two Mk 32 triple-torpedo tubes. They also have full helicopter facilities to accommodate the SH-2H or SH-60B helicopter, and the larger Sea King SH-3 helicopter. The Spruance class destroyers are the first large U.S. warships to use gas-turbine propulsion. This propulsion system was selected because of its smaller space requirements, rapid replacement capability, and cold start capability. (The engines can go from “cold iron” to full power in 12 minutes.) Kidd class guided-missile destroyers. The Kidd class guided-missile destroyers are designed around the Spruance hull and engineering plant. Armament includes two Mk 26 Tartar/ASROC launchers; two Quad Harpoon canisters; two Mk 45, 5"/54-caliber gun mounts; and two Vulcan/Phalanx CIWSs. There are facilities for two SH-2 LAMPS or one LAMPS III. Displacement of these ships is 8,500 tons and propulsion is gas turbine. Arleigh Burke class destroyers. The DDGs of the Arleigh Burke class (fig. 8-18 and fig. 8-19) are the most
The destroyers armament consists of 5-inch guns and a variety of antisubmarine weapons, such as torpedoes, ASROCs, and surface-to-air missiles. Traditionally, destroyers have been named after Secretaries of the Navy and officers and enlisted personnel of the Navy and Marine Corps.
Photograph courtesy of PHI James Slaughenhaupt Figure 8-17.-Spruance class destroyer, USS Moosebrugger (DD 980).
powerful and survivable class of destroyers ever put to sea. They possess the following capabilities:
• AEGIS weapons system with the AN/SPY-ID multi-function radar, capable of detecting and tracking over one hundred targets simultaneously, while conducting multiple engagements
• The vertical launching system, capable of storing and rapidly firing 90 missiles
• The SQQ-89 antisubmarine warfare system with its SQR-19 towed array sonar and the SQS-53C digital hull-mounted sonar
• The Harpoon antiship cruise missile system
• The Tomahawk antiship and land attack cruise missile system, capable of hitting targets hundreds of miles away Improved versions of the 5-inch gun and the Phalanx close-in weapons system. The Arleigh Burke class represents a return to all-steel construction and incorporates electromagnetic pulse hardening, enhanced firefighting features, and a collective protection system to provide protection against nuclear, chemical, or biological contamination. This vital equipment is distributed through the ship, giving the ship improved blast and fragmentation protection, which lets them to survive a hit and continue to fight.
• Two Mk 46 triple-torpedo tubes Submarines.—The Navy deploys two classes of submarines attack submarines (SSNs) and ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs). The mission of nuclear attack submarines (SSNs) is to locate and destroy enemy ships and submarines. They also act as scouts, deliver supplies and personnel to locations in enemy territory, and perform rescue missions. Fleet ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) deliver ballistic missile attacks against assigned targets from either a submerged or surfaced condition. Most of the SSBNs are being converted to carry Trident missiles, which have greater range and multiple warheads. A new class of submarine, the Ohio class (fig. 8-21), has been developed for the Trident missile. The Ohio class is the largest undersea craft developed by the Navy. It displaces 16,600 to 18,700 tons. The size of the Trident submarine is dictated by the larger size missile required for ranges of 4,000 to 6,000 miles and by the larger reactor plant required to drive the ship. The submarine has 24 tubes for the Trident missile and 4 torpedo tubes located in the bow. A nuclear-powered attack submarine, like that of the Sturgeon class, displaces 3,800 to 4,700 tons, can do more than 20 knots, and has four torpedo tubes. The newer Seawolf class fast-attack submarine displaces about 9,137 tons, has four torpedo tubes, and can attain speeds of over 35 knots (fig. 8-22). The Seawolf performs a variety of crucial assignments, from underneath the Arctic icepack to all regions anywhere in the world. Its missions include surveillance, intelligence collection, special warfare, covert cruise-missile strike, mine warfare, and anti-submarine and anti-surface ship warfare. The Seawolf's stealth characteristics make it the world's quietest submarine.
Frigates.—The classification “frigate” designates ships used for open-ocean escort and patrol. Frigates resemble destroyers in appearance, but they are slower, have only a single screw, and carry less armament. Frigates are slowly being replaced by DDGs. The Oliver Hazard Perry class is the only class of guided-missile frigates still commissioned. The USS Ingraham (FFG 61) (fig. 8-20) carries the following armament:
• A single 76-mm, .62-caliber
• Dual-purpose gun • A 20-mm Vulcan/Phalanx rapid-fire gun
Early submarines were named after marine life. The first SSBNs, however, were given names of persons well known in American history, like USS George Washington, USS Patrick Henry, and USS Lafayette. The new fast-attack submarines (SSNs) are named after American cities, like the USS Los Angeles, USS Albuquerque, and USS Memphis. The Tridents (SSBNs) are being named after American states, like the USS Ohio and USS Michigan.
• A single launcher for Harpoon missiles
• Two SH-60 LAMPS III helicopters Page 21
Photograph courtesy of PHC Justin A. Kahkosoko Figure 8-23.—USS Belleau Wood (LHA-3) refuels USS Vincennes (CG 49) during an under way replenishment.
Photograph courtesy of PHC Larry Nixon Figure 8-24.—Landing craft, utility (LCU-1663) back loads equipment and personnel to USS Peleliu (LHA 45). Page 22
Figure 8-32.—Replenishment at sea enables the fleet to remain at sea and make successive strikes without returning to base for fuel, ammunition, and supplies. Page 23
replenish outlying units of the force with dry cargo and ammunition. The missile and special weapons-handling system is separate from the cargo-handling system. This arrangement permits a continuous flow of missiles from the cargo holds to the missile-transfer system, port or starboard. The fuel hoses on the AOE are designed to permit an average ship separation of 200 feet during replenishment instead of the normal 100 feet. The greater distance reduces the possibility of collision and makes increased replenishment speeds feasible. There are nine replenishment stations to port and six to starboard.
FLEET SUPPORT SHIPS.—While certain types of naval auxiliary ships are designed and equipped specifically for towing, for salvage, or for rescue operations, most of these types may, in an emergency and to a limited extent, perform all these operations. ong ships as versatile and as adaptable as the auxiliaries, there is bound to be an occasional overlapping of functions to meet an unexpected situation.
Oceangoing Tugs.—There is one major type of oceangoing tug—the ATF (fleet ocean tug) (fig. 8-38). It has a large cruising range and limited salvage capabilities. ATFs are equipped with firefighting equipment, including fire monitors. (A fire monitor is similar in appearance to a gun and permits water to be discharged through a horizontal arc of 360°.) They also are fitted with automatic towing machines and booms. In addition to hauling and towing, fleet tugs may be called on to patrol certain areas, lay smoke screens, and pull landing craft off beaches. They are often used in search and rescue (SAR) operations. Military Sealift Command (MSC) personnel now operate most fleet tugs.
Rescue and Salvage Ships.—The mission of the rescue and salvage ship (ARS) has four parts—debeaching stranded vessels, heavy lift capability from ocean depths, towing other vessels, and manned diving operations. For rescue missions, these ships are equipped with fire monitors forward and amidships, which can deliver either fire-fighting foam or seawater. The salvage holds of these ships are outfitted with portable equipment to provide assistance to other vessels in dewatering, patching, and supplying of electrical power and other essential services required to return a disabled ship to an operating condition. The Navy employs ARSs (fig. 8-37) to salvage U.S. government-owned ships and, when it is in the best interests of the United States, privately owned vessels. The rugged construction of these steel-hulled ships, combined with speed and endurance, make rescue and salvage ships well suited for rescue/salvage operations of Navy and commercial shipping throughout the world. The versatility of this class of ship adds to the capabilities of the U.S. Navy with regard to assisting those in need on the high seas.
50 mph. By contrast, today's high-performance planes have speeds in excess of 2,000 mph.
In this section, you will learn the basic parts of aircraft and how the Navy identifies aircraft.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft Nomenclature
A fixed-wing aircraft (fig. 8-39) may be divided into three basic parts—fuselage, wings, and empennage (tail). FUSELAGE.—The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft, containing the cockpit and, if there is one, the cabin. On virtually all naval fighter and attack aircraft operational today, the engines and some of the fuel tanks are mounted within the fuselage. WINGS.—Wings are the primary lifting devices of an aircraft, although some lift is derived from the fuselage and tail. Located on the trailing (rear) edge of the wings are flaps that may be used to give extra lift on takeoff or to slow the aircraft in flight or landings; ailerons that control the roll or bank of the aircraft; and trim tabs used to aerodynamically unload the control surfaces to relieve some of the pilot's work. On the leading (front) edge of the wing may be found auxiliary lifting devices, resembling flaps, which are used to increase camber (curvature) of the wing for added lift on takeoff. Most Navy jet aircraft carry their
bomb loads on pylons (called stations) under the wings and, in some cases, under the fuselage. Some jets have missile stations on the sides of the fuselage. Fuel cells are located in the wings; additional external tanks can be fitted for extra range. Larger jets may have their engines slung beneath the wings in pods. Some low-wing aircraft have their main landing gear retract into the wings, while the nose wheel retracts into the fuselage. On most high-wing aircraft all gear retracts into the fuselage. EMPENNAGE.—The empennage consists of the stabilizing fins mounted on the tail section of the fuselage. These include the vertical stabilizer on which is generally mounted the rudder that is used to control yaw, or direction of the nose about the vertical axis; and the horizontal stabilizer, on the trailing edge of which are the elevators that determine the pitch (climb or dive). Some supersonic aircraft may have a full delta wing. In that case, there is no horizontal stabilizer and the elevators and ailerons are combined into control surfaces called elevons. In aircraft with internally mounted jet engines, exhausts normally are in the tail. High-performance jets have afterburners that give additional thrust at the cost of greatly increased fuel consumption. Rudder, ailerons, and elevators are collectively grouped as control surfaces. The “stick” or a similar device in the cockpit controls these surfaces, while foot pedals control the rudder. On high-performance aircraft, aerodynamic pressures on these surfaces become too great for a pilot to overcome manually; hence, all high-speed models today have power-assisted controls.
TAIL ROTOR.—The tail rotor is used for directional control and stability. It is mounted at right angles to the main rotor to counteract the torque of that system. By varying the pitch of the tail rotor blades, the pilot controls yaw. Helicopter engines are connected to the rotor shaft(s) by a transmission, which may be disengaged. That permits the engine(s) to be operated on the ground without engaging the rotor system and also permits a mode of flight known as autorotation. If the engines should stop while in flight, they can be disengaged; the freewheeling action of the rotor will allow a slower descent.
AIRCRAFT MODEL DESIGNATIONS
the lift is generated by the rotation of the assembly, which creates a flow of air over the blades. A helicopter is lifted into the air by the aerodynamic forces on the rotor and not pushed up by the downwash. Some helicopters have twin rotors in tandem at either end of the fuselage; but most have a single, main rotor with a tail rotor mounted at right angles. A few have tandem intermeshing rotors.
All aircraft have tri-service designations; that is, a given aircraft has the same alphanumeric identification symbol, regardless of which service uses the aircraft. Look at table 8-2. Here, you can find the four basic parts of an aircraft model designation.
These numbers are This letter, added to the assigned sequentially series number, indicates an within each basic mission improvement or alteration category. The number is of the basic mode. These separated from the basic
Cargo/transport Special electronics Fighter Helicopter
L Cold weather operations M Missile capability o Observation Q Drone R Reconnaissance
1. Mission/type modification symbol 2. Basic mission/type symbol 3. Aircraft series number
Now, let's try out this system of aircraft designation. For example:
enough fuel to remain on station long enough to render extended support to troops, if needed. Attack aircraft normally operate under conditions of good visibility, but some have the equipment needed for all-weather and night attacks. EA-6B PROWLER.—The Prowler (fig. 8-42) is an all-weather tactical electronic warfare aircraft, based on the A-6 airframe. The Prowler provides jamming coverage to prevent missile engagement of U.S. or allied aircraft during strike operations. The Prowler also carries the high-speed antiradiation missile (HARM). AV-8B HARRIER.—The Harrier (fig. 8-43) is the western world's only operational fixed-wing vertical short takeoff or landing (V/STOL) strike aircraft. It is an integrated V/STOL weapons system incorporating the inertial navigation and attack system (INAS) with an electronic display. The aircraft is used by the Marine Corps and is operated from the decks of aircraft carriers and amphibious support ships.
1. Find the letter "E” in the first column of the table. This aircraft has special electronics. 2. Find the letter “A” in the second column of the table. The basic mission symbol tells you that this is an attack aircraft.
3. The third column of the table explains the number after the dash. This is the sixth aircraft of this series.
4. The fourth column explains the last letter of the aircraft designation. This is improvement/ alteration B. Let's try another one:
Fighters are high-performance aircraft generally employed to gain air superiority. They may be deployed defensively as interceptors, offensively as escorts for bombers or on ground support missions, or independently to counter enemy aircraft. Some are capable of carrying sufficient payloads for bombing missions.
1. First letter is “C.” This is a cargo aircraft. 2. Second letter is “H.” This is a helicopter. 3. 46. This is the forty-sixth of the series. 4. No letter. There have been no improvements/ alterations.
CURRENT FIXED-WING NAVY AIRCRAFT
This section briefly describes some of the fixed-wing aircraft (fig. 8-41) currently operational within the Navy.
F-14 TOMCAT.—The F-14 Tomcat (fig. 8-44) is an aircraft-carrier-based, jet-powered fighter aircraft. The aircraft is mainly missile oriented, carrying the new air-to-air missile, Phoenix, and capable of carrying the older Sidewinder and Sparrow. The Tomcat can be configured for bombing and rocketry. F/A-18 HORNET.—The Hornet (fig. 8-45) is a sonic, single-seat, twin-engine jet. The fighter and attack versions are identical, except for selected interchangeable external equipment. Conversion from the fighter to attack mode (and vice versa) takes less than 1 hour. The aircraft is designed for aerodynamic agility, high reliability, high survivability, and reduced manpower maintenance requirements.
Attack planes are used for low-level bombing, ground support, or nuclear strikes. They do not need the speed of fighters, but should be capable of heavy payloads, have good stability, and be able to carry Page 24Page 25
SH-2 Seasprite The Seasprite (fig. 8-56), an ex-utility helicopter, is now serving in the LAMPS (light airborne multipurpose system) program with the destroyer Navy.
The Seahawk SH-60B (fig. 8-58) is placed aboard frigates and destroyers. The Seahawk is the airborne platform segment of the LAMPS Mk III weapons system. It can carry personnel as well as weapons to detect, localize, and destroy submarines at long range. It is designed to be in constant voice and data link contact with the ship’s CIC. In addition to its primary mission of seeking and engaging submarines many miles from the ship, the Seahawk helicopter is able to provide targeting information for over-the-horizon, surface-to-surface missiles. The secondary mission of the Seahawk helicopter is search and rescue, medical evacuation, vertical replenishment, and communications relay.
Photograph courtesy of PH2(NAC) Jeff Viano Figure 8-56.-SH-2 Seasprite
The Sea Stallion (fig 8-57) tows and operates various mine countermeasure devices designed to detect and neutralize submerged naval mines. CH-53D squadrons are capable of rapid worldwide deployment.
Photograph courtesy of PH3 Anthony Haley Figure 8-58.-SH-60B Seahawk aboard USS Carney (DDG 64) during VERTREP.
The MH-53E (fig. 8-59) is used primarily for airborne mine countermeasures, with a secondary mission of shipboard delivery. The MH-53E Sea Dragon is heavier and has a greater fuel capacity than its ancestor, the CH-53E Super Stallion. MH-53s can operate from carriers and other warships. The Sea Dragon is capable of carrying up to 55 troops or a 16-ton payload 50 nautical miles or a 10-ton payload 500 nautical miles. The MH-53E is capable of towing a variety of mine-sweeping countermeasures systems, including the Mk 105 minesweeping sled, the ASQ-14
Photograph courtesy of SSGT D.W. Mobley Figure 8-57.—CH-53D Sea Stallion airlifts grain for Somalia.
from expeditionary airfields ashore. The Navy's HV-22A will provide combat search and rescue, delivery and retrieval of special warfare teams along with fleet logistic support transport. The Air Force CV-22A will conduct long-range special operations missions. The Osprey is a tiltrotor aircraft with a 38-foot rotor system and engine/transmission nacelle mounted on each wing tip. It can operate as a helicopter when taking off and landing vertically. Once airborne, the nacelles rotate 90 degrees for horizontal flight, converting the V-22 to a high-speed, fuel-efficient turboprop airplane. The wing rotates for compact storage aboard ship. The first flight occurred in March 1989. The V-22 is the world's first production tiltrotor aircraft. Planned purchases include 360 for the Marine Corps, 48 for the Navy, and 50 for the Air Force.
Figure 8-59.—MH-53E Sea Dragon.
side-scan sonar, and the Mk 103 mechanical minesweeping system.
The V-22 Osprey is a joint-service, multimission aircraft with vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) capability. It performs VTOL missions as effectively as a conventional helicopter while also having the long-range cruise abilities of a twin turboprop aircraft. The Marine Corps is the lead service in the development of the Osprey. The Marine Corps version, the MV-22A, will be an assault transport for troops, equipment and supplies, and will be capable of operating from ships or
The TH-57 Sea Ranger is a derivative of the commercial Bell Jet Ranger 206. Although primarily used for training, these aircraft are also used for photo, chase, and utility missions. The Jet Ranger was initially designed to compete in a U.S. Army light observation helicopter competition. Bell lost that competition; but, the 206 was commercially successful. The TH-57 Sea Ranger provides advanced (IFR) training to several hundred aviation students a year at Naval Air Station Whiting Field in Milton, Florida.
Q1. When did the Navy acquire its first aircraft?
Q2. Label the three basic parts of a fixed-wing aircraft.
Q3. Label the three basic parts of a rotary-wing aircraft.
Q4. All aircraft have what type of designation?
Q5. Identify the following aircraft.
In today's world, the United States requires military power adequate to strengthen national security objectives. The United States Navy is an integral component of this nation's military forces. Freedom of the seas is not a gift; it must be won through naval presence or engagements. Naval forces provide our nation with the ability to provide a significant presence in crisis areas, or, if required, a rapid offensive capability. The U.S. Navy has the ability to control enemy naval forces in three areas—air, surface, and subsurface. It can also conduct amphibious and mine warfare operations.
One of the most important aspects of naval warfare is the ability to provide supply and support operations. With the Navy's wide range of underway replenishment and supply ships, we can keep U.S. Navy battle groups under way in crisis areas for long periods of time. The most recent example of this ability is the Persian Gulf War. Today's Navy consists of a new generation of cruisers, destroyers, fighter and strike aircraft, high-speed amphibious assault ships, mine countermeasures ships, replenishment ships, submarines, and weapons systems. With these craft, vessels, and weapons systems, our nation employs the most modern and capable naval force in existence.
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When a band or music is not available at evening colors what command should be played on the bugle?
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