12 July 2017 Show
(Last updated: 12 May 2021) Almost every essay on any subject – from weekly assignment writing, to writing an undergraduate or masters dissertation, or even a thesis – has one thing in common: it will revolve around an argument. Whether you are driving home a specific theory, considering an issue from all angles or debating a double-sided problem, an argument should emerge to give structure and direction to your essay
format. An argument is a statement that you make to persuade your readers to agree with your opinion. This will usually be in the form of a paragraph, or several paragraphs, depending on the length of your essay and the importance of the point you are making. In an essay, you will back up each argument (or point within an argument) by supporting it with evidence. Your evidence can be taken from printed primary and
secondary sources (manuscripts, journals, books), web pages, transcriptions of interviews or film clips, the results of experiments, or questionnaires and other survey work. If you can only find one piece of evidence then that is all you can use. If there is so much material that you could fill a book, choose the strongest piece. Developing the ability
to carry out critical reading is key to being able to argue effectively in your essay writing. You need to read all material with a critical eye. When an academic has made a claim in a book or paper, always question it. Train your brain to automatically think: “Prove it to me!” every time. Do you know what
your essay argument will be? After you have completed critical reading for your essay, decide which line you will take. If you find it hard, sit down with a friend and try to explain your viewpoint to them, which can help you clarify your thoughts. As we explain in this post about essay structure, the structure of your
essay is an essential component in conveying your ideas well, and therefore in writing a great essay. Use the format of your essay to punctuate and clarify your argument. 1. Use a concise introduction to your academic essay to set out key points in your argument and very clearly show what the shape of the essay will look like. Whilst you may feel that acknowledging views opposing yours will weaken your argument, the opposite is in fact true. Your essay will look stronger if you can show you have come to the conclusions you have chosen despite considering objections to your opinion. If you can write about objections and explain why these are wrong –
again, giving evidence – then it shows that your argument is robust, and will also give the reader greater faith in your essay writing, as they will feel your essay or dissertation is giving them an unbiased, rounded view. Don’t make any assumptions about your reader, or popular opinion. Sentences that begin, "It is accepted that…", "We all know that…", "No one would argue that…" may antagonise someone marking your essay. Substantiate every claim you make no matter how obvious or “true”
you think it is, by using sources as evidence.
102 For essays, speeches, debates, meetings, or intense discussions, you may need to organize your thoughts and defend them against people who might not agree with you. To do your best in these situations, follow the process outlined in the next few pages. Remember that arguments stem from a claim or position supported by compelling evidence—evidence that persuades the reader or listener to accept a point of view. The Seven C’s of Building an ArgumentWhen you need to build an argument, use the seven C’s to develop and support a position about a specific topic:
Your Turn Which step in the process outlined above corresponds to the questioning phase of the inquiry process? Which steps correspond to planning? Which steps relate to research? In what ways does building an argument require the inquiry process? 103 1. Consider the situation.Before you can build a strong argument, you need to analyze the communication situation. Ask yourself the following questions:
Sender: I'm writing less as a high school student and more as a concerned American citizen. Message Subject: I'm writing about the national debt. Message Purpose: I'm calling for spending cuts and tax increases to address the debt. Medium: This should be a letter to the editor, so it can reach a general audience. Receiver: My audience is all Americans who are worried about federal fiscal responsibility. Context: This message will appear in a newspaper locally, and it could be picked up by a wire service to appear in national papers. Your Turn Think of the topics you are studying in your classes. Which topic do you feel most strongly about? What position would you most like to argue for? Analyze your communication situation by answering the questions above. 2. Clarify your thinking.Before you can convince others, you must be clear in your own mind about your position. What are you trying to prove? Why do you feel the way you do? What kind of proof do you have? In addition, you should consider both sides of the issue. To do this, set up a pro-con chart like the one shown here:
Your Turn Create a pro-con chart, arguing for and against your position. Thoroughly explore both pros and cons. You will need to understand all perspectives to make a convincing case. 104 3. Constructing a ClaimAfter you have thoroughly investigated an issue, you are ready to construct a claim about it. Arguments develop three types of claims:
To formulate a claim, name your subject and express the truth, value, or policy you want to promote.
4. Collecting EvidenceAfter stating a claim, you must support it. Different types of details provide different types of support:
Your Turn (1) Use the formula above to construct a truth, a value, and a policy claim about a subject you feel strongly about. (2) Choose one of your claims and research it. Write down one of each of the four types of supporting details listed in the chart above. 105 5. Considering Key ObjectionsAny debatable issue has at least two, and often many, points of view. When you build an argument, you need to consider alternate positions. Just as you have gathered support for your position, those with other perspectives will have gathered objections. Start by identifying them.
Your Turn Reverse your thinking. Imagine that you strongly oppose the claim you made and researched on the previous pages. List at least three serious objections to your previous position. Answering ObjectionsIgnoring the objections to your argument weakens rather than strengthens it. You need to face objections head-on. The following strategies have been applied to each of the example objections above.
106 6. Crafting Your ArgumentHow you structure your argument depends a great deal on how receptive or resistant your audience is. For a receptive audience, you can provide support up front and rebuttal of objections near the end. For opposed audiences, you may want to start with rebuttals. Your Turn Think about the audience for the position (claim) you chose to work with on pages 103-104. How receptive or resistant are they? Which of the structures above would you use to craft your argument? Or would you use a different structure? Explain your answer. Using Persuasive AppealsClassical rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, prescribes three ways to appeal to your audience:
The most persuasive arguments may use all three types of appeals—but always responsibly. Each of these appeals can be abused, as you will see in the section on logical fallacies (pages 108–112). Your Turn You’ve learned about using logic (logos) to connect with the reader. Now consider what your audience wants or needs in order to make an emotional connection (pathos). How does your position help them get what they need, want, or expect? 7. Confirming Your Main PointComplete your argument by stating your main point in a new way and connecting it to the future. Leave your audience with a strong final thought. 107 Using Socratic Questions to Examine ArgumentsYou’ve learned how to build a compelling argument. There’s also a technique for examining arguments and deepening thinking. The Greek philosopher Socrates examined arguments through questions, pushing students to use logic to deduce answers. Socratic questions are especially useful for probing the thinking of opponents in a debate. Socratic Questions
Your Turn With a partner, discuss a current issue that you are studying in class. Use Socratic questions occasionally to deepen the discussion. Which questions were most helpful? Which were least helpful? Why? What makes an argument strong in writing?Definition: A strong argument is a non-deductive argument that succeeds in providing probable, but not conclusive, logical support for its conclusion. A weak argument is a non-deductive argument that fails to provide probable support for its conclusion.
What are the 4 parts of a strong argument?Arguments can be divided into four general components: claim, reason, support, and warrant. Claims are statements about what is true or good or about what should be done or believed.
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