Which of the following best explains why coffee plantations in developing countries are considered a form of intensive farming?

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HUNTER GATHERS
Before the invention of agriculture, humans acquired food through the hunting of animals and gathering of various types of edible plants. Most hunter-gatherers tended to live in small tribes for reasons of mobility and efficient distribution of food, water, and resources. Most migration patterns of these early humans were dependent on the movement of seasonal migration patterns of animals and seasonal growth patterns of plants.

BIRTH OF AGRICULTURE
There is various debates within the scientific community between human geographers, sociologists, and anthropologists as to why agriculture arose throughout various locations, called hearths, around the world. Even the date of origin varies within the community, but most believe the birth of agriculture began around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel and other products used to sustain life. Cultivate means “to care for,” and a crop is any plant cultivated by people. During this time, humans began domesticating animals such as dogs, cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats along with the cultivation of various plants for consumption. Social scientists also do not agree if the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals was because of environmental or cultural push factors. It is likely that it was a combination of both since a variety of agricultural hearths were grown around the world. From a climate science perspective, the likely catalyst of agriculture was that around 10,000 years ago the earth was shifting away from the Pleistocene Ice Age and into a warming period called an interglacial period. 

Today, there are basically two divisions of agriculture, subsistence and commercial, that roughly correspond to the less developed and more developed regions. One of the most significant divisions between more and less developed regions is the manner in which people obtain the food they need to survive. Most people in less developed countries are farmers, producing the food they and their families need to survive. In contrast, fewer than 5 percent of the people in North America are farmers. Yet these farmers are able to produce enough to feed the remaining inhabitants of North America and to produce a substantial surplus.

Image by JialiangGao and licensed as Creative Commons GNU Free Documentation.

INTENSIVE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE
Subsistence agriculture is the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmer and mostly found in less developed countries. In subsistence agriculture, small-scale farming is primarily grown for consumption by the farmer and their family. Sometimes if there is a surplus of food it might be sold, but that is not common. In commercial agriculture, the primary objective is to make a profit.

The largest type of agriculture practiced around the world is intensive subsistence agriculture, which is highly dependent on animal power, and is commonly practiced in the humid, tropical regions of the world. As the word implies, this form of subsistence agriculture is highly labor intensive on the farmer using limited space and limited waste. This is a very common practice in East, South, and Southeast Asia where population densities are high and land use is limited. The most common form is wet rice fields, but could also include non-wet rice fields like wheat and barley. In warm locations and long growing seasons, farmers may be able to efficiently get two harvests per year from a single field, a method called double cropping.    

Image by NASA, licensed as Creative Commons Public Domain.

SHIFTING CULTIVATION
Another form of subsistence agriculture is called shifting cultivation, because the farmers literally shift around to new locations every few years to farm new land. There are two processes in shifting cultivation: 1) farmers must remove and burn the earth in a manner called slash-and-burn agriculture where slashing the land clears space, while burning the natural vegetation fertilizes the soil, 2) farmers can only grow their crops on the cleared land for 2-3 years until the soil is depleted of its nutrients then they must move on and remove a new area of the earth; they may return to the previous location after 5-20 years after the natural vegetation has re-grown. The most common crops grown in shifting cultivation are corn, millet, and sugarcane. Another cultural trait of LDCs is that subsistence farmers do not own the land; rather the village chief or council controls the earth. The satellite image above shows deforestation between along the border of Haiti (left) and the Dominican Republic (right), highlighting their political boundaries. Slash-and-burn agriculture has been a major contributor to deforestation around the world. Yet in order to address deforestation and the protection of species, humans need to address root issues such as poverty and hunger.

PASTORAL NOMADISM
Pastoral nomadism is similar to subsistence agriculture except that the focus is on domesticated animals rather than crops. Most pastoral nomads exist in arid regions such as the Middle East and Northern Africa because the climate is too dry for subsistence agriculture. The primary purpose of raising animals is to provide milk, clothing, and tents. What is interesting with pastoral nomads is that most do not slaughter their herds for meat; most eat grains by trading milk and clothing for grain with local farmers.The type of animals chosen by nomads is highly dependent on the culture of the region, the prestige of animals, and the climate. Camels can carry heavy cargo and travel great distances with very little water; a great benefit in arid regions. Goats require more water, but can eat a larger variety of food than the camel.

Most probably believe that nomads wander randomly throughout the area in search for water, but this is far from the truth. Rather pastoral nomads are very aware of their territory. In fact, each group controls a particular area and will rarely invade another area. Each area tends to be large enough to contain enough water and foliage for survival.  Some nomad groups migrate seasonally between mountainous low-lying regions, a process called transhumance.

COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE
In contrast to LDCs, more developed nations tend to have commercial agriculture with a goal to produce food for sale in the global marketplace called agribusiness. The food in commercial agriculture is also rarely sold directly to the consumer; rather it’s sold to a food-processing company where it is processed into a product.  This includes produce and food products.An interesting difference between LDC and MDC in terms of agriculture is the percent of the workforce that actually farm. In LDCs, it is not uncommon that over half of the workforce are subsistence farmers. Yet in MDCs like the United States, the workforce that are farmers are far fewer than half. In the United States alone, less than 2 percent of the workforce are farmers, yet have the knowledge, skills, and technology to feed the One of the reasons why only 2 percent of the United States workforce can feed the entire nation has to do with machinery, which can harvest crops at a large scale and very quickly. MDCs also have access to transportation networks to provide perishable foods like dairy long distances in a short amount of time. Commercial farmers rely on the latest scientific improvements to generate greater yields, including crop rotation, herbicides and fertilizers, hybrid plants, and animal breeds.

PLANTATIONS
Another form of commercial agriculture found in warm, tropical climates, are plantations. A plantation is a large-scale farm that usually focuses on the production of a single crop such as tobacco, coffee, tea, sugar cane, rubber, and cotton to name a few. These forms of farming are commonly found in LDCs, but often owned by corporations in MDCs. Plantations also tend to import workers and provide food, water, and shelter necessities for workers to live there year-round.

Recall about human population that English economist Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) proposed that the world rate of population growth was far outrunning the development of food supplies. Malthus proposed that human population was growing exponentially, while food production was growing linearly. Below is an example:

• Today: 1 person, 1 unit of food
• 25 years from now: 2 persons, 2 units of food
• 50 years from now: 4 persons, 3 units of food
• 75 years from now: 8 persons, 4 units of food
• 100 years from now: 16 persons, 5 units of food

MALNUTRITION
Malnourishment is a term used to describe nutritional imbalances caused by a lack of particular nutrients. It makes sense that global hunger is also creating global malnourishment concerns. A lack of protein can cause bloating in the belly or a condition where children waste away called Marasmus. Vitamin deficiencies in Vitamin A, folic acid, and iodine can cause illnesses like goiter, which is the swelling of the thyroid gland. Many have argued that genetically modified food fortified in these vitamins could dramatically reduce global food malnutrition and end many food-related illnesses caused by food insecurity and malnutrition. An example would be rice fortified with Vitamin A. This is why some argue that there is a place for genetically modified food in order to cure various global food situations. The map above is a global map of malnutrition between 2010 and 2012. Areas in red have a higher malnutrition rates than in yellow or green. Countries in gray have no available data. 

FOOD SECURITY ISSUES
Another way food concerns can be monitored and addressed is by analyzing the food price index, which the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations states "is a measure of the monthly change in international prices of a basket of food commodities. It consists of the average of five commodity group price indices, weighted with the average export shares of each of the groups. There is great concern that globally, food prices are rising making it harder for families to purchase quality food, along with raising concerns for global food insecurity issues. 

OBESITY IN MORE DEVELOPED COUNTRIESOn the flip side, the world is dealing with a malnutrition problem on the other spectrum of overeating and obesity. In fact, more of the world is overweight and obese than living in hunger. Heart attacks, strokes, and diabetes is occurring in rich and poor countries as food high in sugar and fat become more common. So it is becoming more apparent that the world isn't facing a shortage of food production, rather it is an uneven distribution problem. Current statistics show that 65 percent of the U.S. population is considered overweight and that Americans throw away over 40 percent of prepared food into the landfills. Below are a series of videos that look directly and the obesity issue in the United States with attention to our public schools, daily lives, and even national security. 

The United Nations states that over 1.2 billion people lack access to fresh drinking water and 2.5 billion do not have access to water for sanitation. In the United States, the average American uses over 100 gallons of water a day. Now have you ever thought about how much water is required for the food you eat? Below is how much water is used to produce our food based on the book When the Rivers Run Dry by Fred Pearce:

• 250-650 gallons of water for a pound of rice
• 130 gallons for a pound of wheat
• 65 gallons for a pound of potatoes
• 500-1000 gallons for a quart of milk
• 800 gallons for a hamburger
• 1300 gallons for a small steak

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNSRecall that food insecurity is defined as an individual or society’s ability or inability to obtain sufficient quantities of healthy food for survival. Over the past several decades, food has been unevenly distributed around the world creating food insecurity issues. In 1960, the world population was around 3 billion and about 1.8 billion had food insecurity issues. Today, the world population is 7 billion and nearly 1 billion have food security concerns. The reason is because world population growth has increased 1.7 percent since 1960, whereas food production has increased 2.2 percent per year. Today, food insecurity issues are based on a combined problem of economic, environmental, and social situations. 

It is believed that 6 million children die every year from hunger or malnutrition. Hunger issues occur when political instability, war, conflict, or environmental degradation displace populations, removing people from their farms. Often times, droughts, desertification, and famines are confused with each other. A drought is a natural phenomenon where a particular region experiences a short-term deficit of water based on average conditions. A desert can have a drought if precipitation occurs less than average conditions. Desertification is the long-term deterioration of productive soil into unusable "dirt" that is unusable for growing food. Famines are considered mostly "man-made" events because of large-scale food shortages with widespread starvation, social disruption, and economic collapse. Lack of adequate infrastructure, social nets, and government resources tend to cause famines. 

THE GREEN REVOLUTION
So how has the world been able to produce enough food to keep up and actually surpass global population growth? There are a few ideas why that are outlined here. The Green Revolution allowed for the creation of a series of crops that are considered high responders, meaning crops that grow and yield well with increased use of fertilizer, irrigation, and pesticides. The benefits of the Green Revolution include:

• dramatically increased yield outputs of food
• made food production very efficiently for large-scale production: lowered labor costs where one farmer can work large farms
• the development of pesticides improved crop yields by eliminating competition with other plants or predatory insects

• created an agricultural system dependent on pesticides and fertilizers to maintain such high crop yields
  
• agricultural chemicals have unintended ecological consequences, loss of biodiversity, loss of pollinating insects
  
• contamination of drinking water
  

• minimal use of fertilizers, pesticides, and fuel
  
• helps preserve or improve soil, water quality, and biodiversity
  
• crop variations are usually more mixed, which contributes to healthier diets and more sustainable farm ecosystems
  
• organic methods are traditional in most areas, and low costs make this approach appropriate for poor farmers in developing regions
  
• integrated pest management where only small amounts of pesticides are used with other insect control strategies
  

• cost to the farmer and cost to the consumer
  
• organic isn't always more environmentally friendly, local is sometimes more important than organic
  
• non-organic farms can contaminate organic farms through water sources or pollination

• yields increase with GM crops
  
• many GM crops are developed and designed so that the crops create their own natural insecticide
  
• allows for the expansion of agriculture into lands formerly unable to produce food
  
• increased nutrient values and protein consumption to help with malnutrition
  

• new varieties are expensive, forcing new farmers into debt and creating economic disadvantages
  
• growth hormones have been suspect of causing premature puberty and other anomalies
  
• herbicides in drinking water have unknown health effects
  
• long-term studies on public health have not been confirmed yet
  
• concerns with long-term impacts on natural ecosystems
  

Humans have been modifying the environment ever since the domestication of animals and the growth of agriculture around 10,000 years ago. Today there are two major types of agriculture: subsistence and commercial. There are varying types of subsistence agriculture such as intensive like rice patties, shifting cultivation that has lead to deforestation in the rain forests, and migrating cattle for milk, clothing, and tents called pastoral nomadism. Commercial agriculture is what most in the more developed world are use to with large scale farming practices. Another form of commercial agriculture are plantations, large-scale farms that usually focus on one type of crop. As mentioned in the chapter on population, there is some concern that as the world reaches 8 or 9 billion people by 2050, the planet may not be able support such large numbers in terms of food, fresh water, and other natural resources. So far technology has made it so that food production has outpaced population growth, but there may be a limit to this trajectory. There is also concern about the quality of food, specifically with the nutrients within our foods. Less developed countries tend to have problems with malnutrition and become deficient in important types of vitamins. But in more developed countries, the lack of nutrition comes from the fact that many in the United States and Europe eat foods high in fat, highly processed carbohydrates, and low in quality nutrients leading to a obesity problem where society eats too much, but is still deficient in nutrients. 

Finally, there is growing concern about how humans should grow crops. The Green Revolution came from the era of World War I when chemical warfare was developed. Technology allowed us to take that ability and begin a "war on pests" with the development of fertilizers and herbicides. But there is growing scientific data to suggest that humans are beginning to accumulate too much of these toxic chemicals within our bodies leading to many diseases. Organic food production is always attractive because pesticides and herbicides are dramatically reduced and environmental concerns are more focused on. But organic food tends to be a luxury for most humans and there are growing concerns about the lack of regulations with labeling food as organic. Finally, genetically modified food has become quite controversial. Most of us eat food that we can't pernouce the ingredients, but now we are hearing more about how GM foods are out competing native plants. There is also a lot of talk about cloned food, specifically with meat such as hamburger. But GM food has a bright side too. Scientists have been able to create rice that is high in Vitamin A, which has saved millions of lives in less developed countries. So the war on food continues as these three types of food productions are debated scientifically and in the masses.